PLT Key Terms

 

Accommodation

Piaget's term that refers to a change in cognitive structures that produces corresponding behavioral changes.

 Cognitive Constructivism

 

 

 

Advance organizers

David Ausubel's term to describe a type of teaching that explains what is to come. It could be an outline, a list, an introductory paragraph, etc.

 http://wwwnew.towson.edu/facultyonline/TeachingWithLearnOnline/helpsheets/advance%20organizers/advanceorganizers.htm

 http://scied.gsu.edu/Hassard/mos/2.10.html

 

 

Authentic assessment

A means of securing information about a student's success or failure on meaningful and significant tasks. There is a performance component where the student actually shows what he/she can do, unlike a paper-and-pencil objective type of test.

 http://mailer.fsu.edu/~jflake/assess.html

 

 http://scied.gsu.edu/Hassard/mos/2.15.html

 

 

Behavior modification

A deliberate attempt to control student behavior by using positive and negative reinforcement.

 http://scied.gsu.edu/Hassard/mos/2.5.html

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

***Bloom's Taxonomy***

A taxonomy is a classification system. Bloom's Taxonomy features six major classes of cognition: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. Knowledge is the lowest level of thinking; evaluation is the highest.

 Major Categories in the Taxonomy of Educational Objectives

http://faculty.washington.edu/krumme/guides/bloom.html

 

 

***Classroom Management***

Fifteen ways to bring your class to order

http://www.sciteched.org/plt/classroom_managment.html

 

 

Concept Mapping

 Learning Skills Program - Concept Mapping

http://www.coun.uvic.ca/learn/program/hndouts/map_ho.html

 

 Concept Mapping Homepage

http://users.edte.utwente.nl/lanzing/cm_home.htm

 

***Cooperative learning***

Peer-centered learning experiences; students of different abilities work together in small groups to solve a problem. Everyone in the group must participate.

 http://scied.gsu.edu/Hassard/mos/2.10.html

 

 

 

Desists (see also classroom managment)

A teacher's actions to stop misbehavior.

The Facilitative Teacher

http://scied.gsu.edu/Hassard/mos/10.2.html

Classroom management

http://www.sciteched.org/plt/classroom_manage2.html

 

 

Discovery learning

Bruner's term for learning that involves the rearrangement and transformation of material that leads to insight.

 http://scied.gsu.edu/Hassard/mos/7.4.html

 http://scied.gsu.edu/Hassard/mos/2.7.html

 

 

***Inquiry teaching***

Bruner's belief that teaching should permit students to be active partners in the search for knowledge, thus enhancing the meaning of what they learn.

 http://scied.gsu.edu/Hassard/mos/2.7.htmln

 

 

Lesson Plan

An outline designed to present objectives and content to be taught in a logical, systematic manner.  Objective, Teacher Input, Guided Practice, Independent Practice, and Closure.

 

 

 

 

 

Multiple intelligences

Gardner's eight relatively autonomous intelligences. They are: bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, natural and spatial.

 Multiple Intelligences

 

***Rubrics***

 

***Seat Arrangements***

 Seating Arrangements

 

 

Scaffolding

Scaffolding is an instructional technique whereby the teacher models the

desired learning strategy or task, then gradually shifts responsibility to the students.

Temporary aid provided by one person to encourage, support and assist a lesser skilled person in carrying out a task. These skills are gradually transferred to the learner.

 

 

Semantic Mapping

Simliar to concept mapping but more like a web

 

Formative and Summative Assessment

Formative assessment is used to give students an indication of how they are progressing in terms of their skills, knowledge, attitudes and understanding in a subject. Students can use this type of assessment as a diagnostic tool to identify and improve areas of weakness and as a means of practicing a skill. Summative assessment is the attempt to summarize student learning at some point in time.

 

Think/Pair/Share

Think/Pair/Share is a strategy designed to provide students with "food for thought" on a given topic enabling them to formulate individual ideas and share these ideas with another student.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Section 1: Knowing How Students Learn and Develop

Students’ Development
Can You Apply the Work of These Theorists?

Moral Development: Kohlberg

l    Theory: Children pass through 3 levels (6 stages) as they develop their moral reasoning. Stage I focuses on children following their self-interests, Stage II emphasizes the role of family & community, and Stage III is based on ethical principles. While ages are not established, most children are in the early part of Level II by age 9-10 & fewer than 25% individuals reach Level III (Slavin, 2000).

 

l    Application: Young children may focus on their own needs, “As long as I don’t get caught, I’ll take the cookie.” Teachers should explain the importance/need of consequences. As children mature, they take on the rules of the community. Teachers need to allow students to assist in making classroom rules & consequences.

 

Personal & Social (Psychosocial) Development: Erikson

l   Theory: Children move through a series of stages as they develop. During each stage they encounter crises that need to be resolved. If not resolved, the children encounter difficulties later on. (See following page).

 

l   Application: Erikson’s work emphasizes the importance of children’s environments and the varying roles of the teacher, parent, and peers. Teachers can have significant impact on how students feel about themselves.

 

Students’ Learning

 

Cognitive Theories of Learning

 

Cognitive theories of learning had their roots in gestalt psychology. During the period of time that behavioral theories were being developed, a competing and alternative group of theories was developed by gestalt psychologists. Unlike the behaviorism, Gestalt theory emphasized the importance of mental processes. In Gestalt psychology, the learner reacts to meaningful wholes. According to Gestalt psychologists learning can take place by discovery or insight. The idea of insight learning was first developed by Wolfgang Kohler in which he described experiments with apes in which the apes could use boxes and sticks as tools to solve problems. In the box problem, a banana is attached to the top a chimpanzee's cage. The banana is out of reach but can be reached by climbing upon and jumping from a box. Only one of Kohler's apes (Sultan) could solve this problem. A much more difficult problem which involved the stacking of boxes was introduced by Kohler. This problem required the ape to stack one box on another, and master gravitational problems by building a stable stack. Kohler also gave the apes sticks which they use to rake food into the cage. Sultan, Kohler's very intelligent ape was able to master a two stick problem by inserting one stick into the end of the other in order to reach the food. In each of these problems, the important aspect of learning was not reinforcement, but the coordination of thinking to create new organizations (of materials). Kohler referred to this behavior as insight or discovery learning.

 

Cognitive thinking and research got a boost from the launching of Sputnik (pun intended). As mentioned earlier this sparked a massively funded curriculum reform effort in the United States in science and mathematics. The emphasis of the reform was to produce students who could think like scientists through discovery and inquiry learning and active student involvement. This emphasis brought together scientists, teachers and psychologists. One of the most influential psychologists during this period in science education was Jerome Bruner, Director of the Harvard Center for Cognitive Studies.

 

Cognitive Development: Piaget

l    Theory: Children move through a set series of stages as they develop their cognitive abilities. Throughout these stages they learn by interacting with their environment. This interaction often results in a disequilibrium and requires that they adapt their schemes in response to their environment through the processes of assimilation & accommodation.

 

l    Application: Children interact with their environment, thereby constructing their own knowledge of the world. This is the basis for constructivism. Provide developmentally appropriate lessons that include hands-on activities whenever possible and activate their prior knowledge. Remember that children move through all stages, but develop at different rates.

 

Cognitive Development: Vygotsky

l    Theory: Children learn signs (language, thinking, problem solving) through interaction with others in their culture. It is when children are helped by others when they are working within their zone of proximal development that they develop cognitively. Children eventually learn to self-regulate or think & solve problems without others’ help. Private or self-speech is a part of this development.

 

l    Application: Teachers must teach within a child’s zone of proximal development (that level just beyond a child’s current level of understanding) using scaffolding (modeling, think alouds, questions, etc.) to provide the needed support to assist the child in his/her development. Encourage oral communication within the classroom and provide opportunities for children to learn from one another.

 

Intelligence

l    According to Slavin (2000), intelligence is an individual’s general aptitude for learning and the ability to acquire and use new knowledge.

 

l    The average Intelligence Quotient (IQ) is 100 with a standard deviation of 15 points. Based on standardized test score, they reflect the results of a given exam and are considered estimates of a child’s school achievement. A variety of factors, including students’ past experiences, culture, and language skills, may influence their outcomes.

 

l    Heredity and environmental factors play about an equal role in a student’s intelligence.

Multiple Intelligences: Gardner

Theory: An individual can have up to 8 separate intelligences, including linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalist. Gardner does not support traditional intelligence tests as they do not assess these separate abilities.

 

Application: Know your students well enough to know their strengths in the above areas. Use a variety of assignments, activities, and assessments so that students can develop their competence in any or all of the intelligences.

 

Exceptional Learners

 

Teachers’ Responsibilities to Students Who Have Special Needs

 

American with Disabilities Act of 1990 (PL 101-336): All individuals with disabilities, regardless of the severity of their disability, are entitled to care, treatment, education, and opportunities which will enhance their ability to make a contribution to society. Accommodations of public services and buildings.

 

IEP: Individualized Education Program: Contains child’s current level/abilities, annual & short-term goals, specific educational services, extent to which child participates in normal classroom activities, evaluation criteria, beginning & ending dates, parents’ roles, etc.

(Henson & Eller, 1999)

Teaching Students With Exceptionalities

 

l   Students With Learning Disabilities:

n     adapt content & instruction as needed according to IEP

n     appropriate on-going assessment

n     give frequent feedback

n     actively engage students in their learning

n     use appropriate classroom management techniques

(Slavin, 2000)

Students Identified as Gifted:

n     integrate assignments that include abstract thought

n     provide creative activities

n     encourage a variety of learning opportunities where students work independently, with classmates, and with other students of similar abilities




Motivating Students

Factors Influencing Motivation: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

 

l   Behavioral Approach: Students receive incentives such as grades, recognition, and rewards. Those students with extrinsic motivation may react more favorably to these motivators.

l   Humanistic Approach: Students’ deficiency needs must be met before their growth needs can be addressed. See following page.

l   Motivation can be influenced by family, peers, ethnicity, SES, and gender.

 

 

Behavioral Theories of Learning

 

What do you think the following have in common?

 

    • A teacher says to a student, "I'm proud of you. Your science fair project was outstanding."

 

    • A teacher asks a question. A student answers. The teacher says, "Good answer."

 

    • A biology teacher gives extra credit for students who bring a newspaper clipping on bioethical issues.

 

All of these are applications of behavioral theories of learning. Behavioral theories emphasize overt or observable behaviors in order to influence and determine if learning has occurred. First, we will examine some of these behavioral theories, and then identify some principles of behaviorism that can be applied to the classroom.

 

Conditioning

 

Conditioning, also referred to as classical conditioning was one of the first theories of behaviorism. You are probably familiar with the famous experiments by the Russian scientist Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (1849 - 1936). He found out that a dog's behavior could be conditioned. Here is what he did. A dog, when presented with a piece of meat salivates. Pavlov called the meat an unconditioned stimulus resulting in an unconditioned response (salivation). To condition the response behavior, Pavlov rang a small bell the same time the meat was presented. After several practice sessions in which the bell and meat were presented simultaneously, the dog eventually learns to salivate when the bell is rung without the meat. In this case the bell is the conditioned stimulus.

 

According to Hilgard and Bower, Pavlov's contribution rested as much on his methodology as the results of his research. His theorizing and the care with which he explored numerous relationships provided a foundation for further behaviorists.

 

Connectionism

 

According to Edward L. Thorndike (1874 - 1949), the basis of learning is the association between sense impressions and impulses to action. Such an association became known as a "connection." Thorndike's theory of stimulus-response became the original S__R psychology of learning. Thorndike theorized that the most characteristic form of learning was trial-and-error, or learning by selecting and connecting.

 

Thorndike developed many of his ideas on learning by studying the behavior of animals (cats, dogs, fish, and monkeys) in what he called a "problem-box." The animal was placed in the problem-box confronted with a situation in which it has to escape from the box or attain food. In the case of the hungry animal trying to escape, it was learning to associate the stimulus(release mechanism) with the response (escape or food). Thorndike developed the "law of effect" which refers to the strengthening or weakening of a connection as a result of it consequences. Thorndike found that rewards strengthened connections, but punishments did not weaken them.

 

Operant Conditioning

 

Of all the theories of behavioral learning, operant conditioning probably has had the greatest impact on the science teacher. B. F. Skinner (1904 - 1990) proposed a class of behavior that is controlled by stimulus events that immediately follow an action. Skinner labeled these operant behaviors because they operated on the environment to receive reinforcement. According to Skinner, once an operant behavior occurs, its future rate of occurrence depends upon its consequences. According to Skinner and other modern behaviorists, operant behavior is to be distinguished from responding behavior. Responding behavior involves the reactions of the smooth muscles and glands and includes reflexive reactions such as salivating, secreting digestive juices, shivering, increased heart or respiratory rates, and so forth. Operant behavior, on the other hand, involves the striated muscular system (muscles under voluntary control), and results in behaviors such as talking, walking, eating and problem solving. Responding behavior is controlled by preceding stimuli.

Operant behavior, on the other hand, is controlled by stimulus events that immediately follow the operant .

 

Operant Conditioning

 

Skinner designed a special apparatus (others called it the Skinner box) for use with white rats, and later with pigeons. It consisted of a darkened sound-resistant box into which the rat (or pigeon) is placed. The box contains a small brass lever which, if pressed, delivers a pellet of food. Skinner connected the lever with a recording system which produced a graphical tracing of the rat's behavior. The pigeon box was slightly different; the pigeon "pecked" for its food at spot and received grain.

 

Skinner's work resulted in the development of a number of principles of behavior that have direct bearing on science teaching. Two concepts stand out that have implications for the science teacher, namely, consequences and reinforcement. In the sections that follow, we will explore these two concepts, and then return to them again in Chapter 10 on classroom management.

 

Consequences. Skinner found that pleasurable consequences "strengthen" behavior, while unpleasant consequences "weaken it." Pleasurable consequences are referred to as reinforcers, while unpleasant consequences are called punishers. The teacher who says, "Alex, you did such a great job on your laboratory assignment that you can spend the remaining ten minutes working with one of the computer games" is making use of reinforcer to strengthen classroom work. Let's examine reinforcers a little more carefully.

 

Reinforcers. Behavioral psychologists differentiate between two types of reinforcers, primary and secondary. A primary reinforcer satisfies human needs for food, water, security, warmth and sex. Secondary reinforcers are those that acquire their value by being related to primary reinforcers, or other secondary reinforcers. Secondary reinforcers are the ones that are of greatest value to the science teacher. These reinforcers, which are also called conditioned reinforcers, can be divided into three categories, social, token and activity.

 

1. Social reinforcers.

 

Social reinforcers are used very effectively by teachers to strengthen desired classroom behavior and learning. Social reinforcers, especially praise, can be a powerful tool for the science teacher. Although Brophy reports that praise is not used very frequently, he did report that most students enjoy receiving some praise, and teachers enjoy giving it. To be effective, praise should be given only when a genuinely praiseworthy accomplishment has occurred. The teacher's praise should be informative, specifying some particulars about the noteworthy behavior or performance to help the student understand his or her successes. And finally praise should be genuine, sincere and credible.

 

Social behaviors can be divided into four clusters: praising words and phrases, facial expressions, nearness, and physical contact.  The use of these behaviors is common in many science classrooms.

Praising words and phrases

 

    * Good

    * That's right

    * Excellent

    * That's clever

    * Fine answer

    * Good job

    * Good thinking

    * Great

    * That shows a great deal of work

    * You really pay attention

    * I like that.

    * Show the class you model.

    * That's interesting

    * Joan, you're doing so well with the microscope.

    * That was very kind of you.

 

Facial Expressions

 

    * Smiling

    * Winking

    * Nodding

    * Looking interested

    * Laughing

 

Nearness

 

    * Walking among the students.

    * Sitting in their groups.

    * Joining the class at break.

    * Eating with the students.

 

Physical Contact   

 

    * Touching

    * Patting head.

    * Shaking hand.

    * Stroking arm.

 

2. Token reinforcers.

 

Token reinforcers are things such as points, gold stars or chips that can be earned and have a reinforcing effect by pairing them with other reinforcers. Teachers have found the use of tokens very effective in managing student learning and classroom behavior. The use of a point system is especially effective in helping students learn how to manage their behavior, as well contributing their success as science learners. Many teachers set up their grading system using a point system, e.g. points can be earned for homework, laboratory assignments, projects, quizzes, and tests.

 

3. Activity reinforcers.

 

Activity reinforcers also referred to as the Premack Principle, are a third group of reinforcers that teachers have found effective in the classroom. According to psychologist David Premack, more-preferred activities can be used to reinforce less-preferred activities. According to the Premack principle, any higher-frequency behavior that is contingent on a lower-frequency behavior is likely to increase the rate of lower-frequency behavior. Thus the teacher would set up a situation in which students, when they complete the less-preferred activity are permitted to participate in a more-preferred activity. In the science classroom, some examples of the Premack principle would be, "You may work in the computer game center when you finish cleaning the laboratory," "Those who score over 90 on today's quiz will not have to do homework tonight," or "If all students are in their seats when the bell rings, then the class may have three minutes of free time at the end of today's class." These examples will not necessarily work in each situation. The science teacher must determine the preferred activities, and then use them to strengthen the less-preferred activities.

 

Theory into Practice

 

Behavioral theories of learning can be put into practice to the advantage of teachers and students alike. The underlying principle of behaviorism is "reinforce behaviors you wish to see repeated." According to Robert Slavin the main principles of the use of reinforcement is to increase desired behavior changes in the classroom are as follows:

 

    1. The teacher should determine the behaviors desired from the students, and reinforce them when they occur.

 

    2. Explain to students the behavior that is desired, and when they show the desired behavior, reinforce the students' behavior and explain why.

 

Teachers deal with a complex classroom environment, often involving the handling of dangerous materials, or doing experiments involving safety issues. Specifying the behaviors that you expect in the laboratory, or whenever students are handling materials, and reinforcing them when they occur will help the students become independent and responsible learners.

Skinner's concept of operant conditioning can be applied to the science classroom in many ways, but three seem clearly the most important, namely in (1) the use of classroom questions and associated techniques, (2) developing a positive classroom climate and (3) in the development of programmed teaching materials.

 

Use of Classroom Questions. One of the most common teaching behaviors that you will employ is that of asking students questions. Questions can be directed at the whole class, small groups of students, or individuals. The technique involves this sequence:

 

• Teacher asks a question

 

• Teacher pauses for at least 3 seconds (to give students a chance to think of an answer)

 

• Teacher calls on a student

 

• Student responds

 

• Teacher responds to student (choices include praising the student, using the student idea).

 

Classroom Climate. Skinner's work can be applied to creating a positive classroom climate by having the teacher respond to student success rather than failures. For example, rather than pointing out what students are doing wrong, point out what they are doing right. When a student answers a teachers question with a partially correct response, the teacher should pick up on the correct aspect of the answer to reinforce the student's contribution. 

 

Creating a Positive Classroom Environment by Means of Operant Conditioning

 

Step 1: Analyze the environment

           

 

Step 2: Make a list of positive reinforcers

           

 

Step 3: Select sequence of behaviors to be implemented

           

 

Step 4: Implement program, maintain records of behavior and make changes

 

Identify positive and undesirable student behaviors receiving reinforcement. What behaviors receive the punishment. What is the frequency of punishment. Have these behaviors been suppressed.

           

 

Determine students' preferred activities (students can contribute to this). Consider using punished behaviors as reinforcers. If talking with peers is a disruptive behavior consider using it (time to talk with peers) as a reinforcer.

           

 

Implement a positive reinforcement program. Instead of punishment for tardiness, reward students for being on time.

           

 

Make sure classroom rules are clear.  Make sure students know how to earn reinforcement. Implement reinforcement schedule.

 

Programmed Teaching Materials and Computer Assisted Instruction

 

Skinner designed teaching machines which controlled the students progress through a body of material. The teaching machine, usually by means of questions or fill-in-the-blank statements, provided reinforcement for right answer (by confirming them, allowing the student to move ahead). The teaching machine was a vehicle for programming instruction, as well as providing an environment in which students could work at their own rate. Textbook and workbooks were written to teach information about a variety of subjects, especially in science. The textbooks were equipped with a card that could be inserted in a page holder. As student s worked through each statement or question, they would slide the card so that the correct answer would appear. Early machines and textbooks were limited in the types of reinforcements they could provide. However, with the development of the microcomputer, not only can a variety of reinforcements be provided (a pleasant sound, a voice), but the software can be programmed to provide a variety of feedback for various responses. Drill and practice, tutorial and some game software programs are based on the Skinnerian concept of programmed instruction.

 

Teachers can make use of Skinner's concept of programmed instruction by providing students the opportunity to work in the microcomputer environment. Drill and practice and tutorial programs are available in most content areas. Although not the most avant garde use of the computer, they can be help students learn science information efficiently, and with little teacher effort.

 

Behaviorism has contributed greatly to teaching, but like any theory of learning, it has its limitation and rivals. In the past 20 years , there has been an increase in the variety of learning theories to explain student learning. Teachers have available to them the theories proposed by a group of psychologists known as cognitive scientists. These psychologist shift their attention away from observable behaviors and instead focus on skills associated with memory, perception, conceptual processes, as well as processes related to problem solving, concept discovery and the use of rules.

 

Operant Conditioning: Skinner

l   Theory: Children’s learning is influenced by consequences that follow a given behavior. Strengthen behaviors through positive & negative reinforcements. Reduce behaviors using punishments.

 

l   Application: Reinforcers must be carefully selected; what works for one student will not work for another. Praise should be specific. Use punishment sparingly.

 

 

 

 

 

Social Theories of Learning

 

Most teaching takes place in groups, and it is therefore imperative that science teachers closely examine the results of research on small group, mixed-ability team learning. At one time or another, students in your classes will be involved with each other doing science laboratory activities, pairing off to answer questions or solve a problem, working in a small team to prepare a report or make a class presentation. Students interact with each other, and it is important to know how this interaction contributes to student learning. It is also important for the teacher to know how to apply social learning theory to improve student learning, and instruction. Enter cooperative learning.

 

Over the past several years, a major educational innovation has emerged that is effecting classroom learning. Teachers are implementing programs in which students are organized into small groups to accomplish a task, solve a problem, complete an assignment, study for a test, engaged in a hands-on activity.

 

Cooperative learning is based on the relationships among motivation, interpersonal relationships and the accomplishment of specific goals. According to social psychology theorists, a state of tension within the individual motivates movement toward the attainment of desired goals. Thus, from this notion, it is the individuals drive to accomplish a desired goal that motivates behavior, whether it be individualistic, competitive or cooperative.

 

Cooperative learning theory posits that behavior among individuals in a group is synergic, that is the goals of the individuals in a group are linked together in such a way that cooperative goal attainment is correlated positively, or is greater than the separate or individual performance of the group members. This theoretical principle runs through a wide range of cooperative learning models which will be discussed in detail in Chapter 6, but are alluded to briefly below.

 

How does cooperative learning facilitate student learning? There are many points of view on this question. The behaviorist explanation goes like this. Students working in one group compete with other groups that the teacher has established. Students within a group work together to accomplish a task (complete a laboratory report, study together to prepare for a test, complete a science worksheet). Students are placed in a situation where their success is dependent on the behavior and performance of other students in their group. Success does not necessarily imply a grade, but simply doing well on a competitive task where one teams performance is rated against other teams' performances. Accordingly, team rewards and individual accountability are essential to achievement. In one of the most widely used models of cooperative learning (Student Teams--Achievement Divisions) student teams study together after being presented information by the teacher. After studying together, students take a test. Test scores are used, along with a system of improvement scores, to chart team recognition.

 

On the other hand, a cognitive perspective argues that the intrinsically interesting nature of learning tasks combined with the range of abilities and knowledge that students bring to the classroom promotes an environment of learning. Learning tasks that require multiple abilities to accomplish appear to be effective in reducing the domination of group learning by high-ability students. Instead of relying heavily on reading ability, science teachers should design group learning tasks that require reasoning, hypothesizing, predicting, and inductive thinking, the use of manipulative materials, and multimedia sources. According to social psychologists, such tasks "encourage students to modify their perceptions of their own and one another's competence."

 

A number of social factors affect the success of cooperative learning. As David and Roger Johnson point out, cooperative learning is not having student sit together as they do individual assignments, not having high ability students help slower students, and is not assigning a project wherein one person does all the work. They do, however, point out that cooperative learning is based on the following concepts.

 

Principles of Cooperative Learning

 

Johnson and Johnson (1992) has investigating learning in cooperative teams, and have developed a model that is based on several principles, the most important of which are positive interdependence, face-to-face communication, individual accountability and social skill development.

 

Positive interdependence. Students need to value the performance of each member of the group, as well as their own. A sense of mutual dependence is established by agreeing on a goal, dividing up the workload or materials, resources or information, differentiating roles, and providing joint rewards. Each of these creates contributes to creating an environment of positive interdependence.

 

Face-to-Face Communication. Students need to be put in situations where they interact with each other face-to-face. Learning in small groups is dependent on students talking with each other. Interaction in the science classroom will not only involve verbal exchanges, but, if you embrace the multi-ability concept mentioned earlier, students will interact with each other nonverbally as well. For example, building models of atoms, or glacial features, making a video tape of a natural phenomena, testing the ph of a collection of rain samples are activities that provide the opportunity for both verbal and nonverbal interaction.

 

Individual Accountability. There is always the fear that groupwork results in one or two students doing all the work, while the rest get a free ride. The structure of cooperative learning is dependent also on each student's mastery of the material being learned, and responsibility for sharing in the attainment of the groups' goal. Individual testing, grading and feedback are part of the cooperative learning approach.

 

Interpersonal Skills. Just as students need to learn the skills of doing science, you will discover that students, if placed in cooperative learning groups, will need to learn some communication skills. Just as science teachers devise lessons designed to help students learn science skills such as observing, classify, predicting and hypothesizing (see Chapter 3), they also design lessons to prepare students for cooperative work. Cooperative groupwork requires a set of communication skills that are not required in traditional , or individualized learning environments.

 

One effective technique is to design a science activity, but use it to focus on one or more of the following discussion or cooperative group skills:

 

    1. Asking for others' opinions

 

    2. Listening

 

    3. Reflecting on what has been said

 

    4. Being concise

 

    5. Giving reasons for ideas

 

    6. Allowing everyone to contribute

 

    7. Pulling ideas together

 

    8. Finding out if group is ready to make decision

 

 

                        

 

 

 

Social (Observational) Learning Theory: Bandura

 

Theory: Children learn by observing others; this may be done through modeling or learning vicariously through others. Often leads to self-regulation.

 

Application: Students learn through the modeling of others.

 

Social (Observational) Learning Theory: Bandura

 

The Four Stages of Bandura’s Observational Learning

 

l          The teacher gains the students’ attention.

 

l          The teacher models a behavior or skill to the students.

 

l          The students reproduce or imitate the behavior or skill. Assessment occurs at this stage.

 

l          The students are motivated to continue the behavior or skill through external or internal motivators.

 

Instructional Practices That Influence Students’ Motivation

§      Be knowledgeable of your subject/content area(s).

§      Develop interesting lessons that relate to students’ lives.

§      Set high expectations, but also be knowledgeable of your students’ abilities and gear your instruction so that you are challenging them without frustrating them (zone of proximal development).

§      Encourage students to set realistic goals.

§      Focus on developing students’ intrinsic motivation to learn; learning for the sake of learning.

 

Jerome Bruner and Discovery Learning

 

Because of Jerome Bruner's connection with the National Science Foundation curriculum development project's of the 1960s and 1970s, his thinking had a powerful effect on approaches to science learning. Bruner believed that students learn best by discovery and that the learner is a problem solver who interacts with the environment testing hypotheses and developing generalizations. Bruner felt that the goal of education should be intellectual development, and that the science curriculum should foster the development of problem-solving skills through inquiry and discovery.

 

Bruner said that knowing is a process rather than the accumulated wisdom of science as presented in textbooks. To learn science concepts and to solve problems, students should be presented with perplexing (discrepant) situations. Guided by intrinsic motivation the learner in this situation will want to figure the solution out. This simple notion provides the framework for creating discovery learning activities.

 

Bruner described his theory as one of instruction rather than learning. His theory has four components as follows (Based on J.S. Bruner, Toward a Theory of Instruction (cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1967):

 

Curiosity and Uncertainty. Bruner felt that experiences should be designed that will help the student be willing and able to learn. He called this the predisposition toward learning. Bruner believed that the desire to learn and to undertake problem solving could be activated by devising problem activities in which students would explore alternative solutions. The major condition for the exploration of alternatives was "the presence of some optimal level of uncertainty."This related directly to the student's curiosity to resolve uncertainty and ambiguity. According to this idea, the teacher would design discrepant event activities that would pique the students' curiosity. For example, the teacher might fill a glass with water and ask the students how many pennies they think can be put in the jar without any water spilling. Since most students think that only a few pennies can be put in the glass, their curiosity is aroused when the teacher is able to put between 25 - 50 pennies in before any water spills. This activity then leads to an exploration of displacement, surface tension, variables such as the size of the jar, how full the glass is, and so forth. In this activity the students would be encouraged to explore various alternatives to the the solution of the problem by conducting their own experiments with jars of water and pennies.

 

Structure of Knowledge. The second component of Bruner's theory refers to the structure of knowledge. Bruner expressed it by saying that the curriculum specialist and teacher "must specify the ways in which a body of knowledge should be structured so that it can be most readily grasped by the learner." This idea became one of the important notions ascribed to Bruner. He explained it this way: "Any idea or problem or body of knowledge can be presented in a form simple enough so that any particular learner can understand it in a recognizable form."

 

According to Bruner, any domain of knowledge (physics, chemistry, biology, earth science) or problem or concept within that domain (law of gravitation, atomic structure, homeostasis, earthquake waves) can be represented in three ways or modes: by a set of actions (enactive representation), by a set of images or graphics that stand for the concept (iconic representation); and by a set of symbolic or logical statements (symbolic representation). The distinction among these three modes of representation can be made concretely in terms of a balance bean, which could be used to teach students about quadratic equations. A younger student can act on the principles of a balance bean, and can demonstrate this knowledge by moving back and forth on a see-saw. An older student can make or draw a model of the balance beam, hanging rings and showing how it is balanced. Finally, the balance beam can be described verbally (orally or written), or described mathematically by reference to the Law of Moments. The actions, images and symbols would vary from one concept or problem to another, but according to Bruner, knowledge can be represented in these three forms.

 

Sequencing. The third principle was the most effective sequences of instruction should be specified. According to Bruner, instruction should lead the learner through the content in order to increase the student's ability to "grasp, transform and transfer" what is learned. In general sequencing should move from enactive (hands-on, concrete), to iconic (visual), to symbolic (descriptions in words or mathematical symbols). However, this sequence will be dependent on the student's symbolic system and learning style. As we will see later, this principle of sequencing is common to theories developed by Piaget, as well as other cognitive psychologists.

 

Motivation. The last aspect of Bruner's theory is that the nature and pacing of rewards and punishments should be specified. Bruner suggests that movement from extrinsic rewards, such as teacher's praise, toward intrinsic rewards inherent in solving problems or understanding the concepts is desirable. To Bruner, learning depends upon knowledge of results when it can be used for correction. Feedback to the learner is critical to the development of knowledge. The teacher can provide a vital link to the learner in providing feedback at first, as well helping the learner develop techniques for obtaining feedback on his or her own.

 

Metacognitive Strategies

 

Have you ever thought about your strengths (and weaknesses, too) as a learner? Do you know how you learn? Do you have strategies that you use to learn? These strategies are ways to help students learn about learning and learn about knowledge. These are called metacognitive strategies, and they are playing an increasingly important role in science teaching.

 

There are several definitions of metacognition. One view is it is our ability to know what we know and what we don't know. We might also think of metacognition as the ability to plan a strategy:

 

    1. for producing what information is needed;

 

    2. to be conscious our own steps and strategies during the act of problem solving; and

 

    3. to reflect on and evaluate the productivity of our own thinking.

 

Teaching metacognitive strategies is a potentially new goal for science teachers. Given that student learning styles influence the way students process and perceive, metacognitive strategies can be useful in helping students understand their unique learning patterns. What are some metacognitive strategies (skills) that students might learn to help them understand their own thinking.

 

Mind Mapping. Introduced earlier as cognitive mapping, mind mapping is a powerful metacognitive tool. For example, Joseph Novak has reported high school biology students using concept maps were more on task in laboratory experiments, and reported being very conscious of their own responsibility for learning. Novak also reports that some teachers are teaching "how to learn" short courses designed to teach students metacognitive strategies. Novak suggests that using cognitive maps as a metacognitive strategy increases meaningful learning over rote learning for students in a variety of situations.

 

Illustrating and Drawing. Some learners are visually attuned to looking at things in pictures. There are many opportunities in which students could create an illustration or a drawing to explain their thinking, or to show how they understand a concept.

 

Brainstorming. "List a many observation of this burning candle as you can." "What are as many ways that one individual can differ from an other? What are as many hypotheses to explain the phenomenon? Brainstorming, a strategy used to help students creatively solve problems, can also be used a metacognitive strategy. Brainstorming should proceed without censorship. If students are working in a group, all ideas should be accepted. If the students are working alone, they should be told to consider all ideas that "bubble up." Teaching students not to censor their ideas at the beginning of a process is an important metacognitive tool.

 

Planning Strategies. Students can be shown, prior to an activity (short term or long term) how to go about solving or completing it, special ways that might be helpful for attacking the problem, any rules and directions to follow (especially if working with equipment, chemicals or other science materials). Asking students during a learning activity to share their progress or how they are proceeding with the activity or problem enables them to perceive their own thought processes.

 

Generating Questions and Other Inquiry Strategies. Another metacognitive strategy is to Teach students to pose questions regarding some material they will read in their textbook, homework assignment, research project, or laboratory investigation. The process of asking questions is the heart of scientific inquiry. Not only does questioning help focus thinking strategies, but the questions themselves show an understanding for the subject matter, and can, if students are asked to read information, help them with comprehension.

 

Evaluating Actions. Some teachers ask students to evaluate what they like or didn't like, or what were the pluses and minuses of a learning activity. This process enables students to reflect upon and evaluate their actions, and perhaps apply this learning to future actions.

 

Teaching Capability. Some teachers have a rule in their class: "Outlawed: I can't do it!" Instead these teachers help students focus on what information, material or skills are needed to do it. Earlier, I mentioned that teaching students that intelligence is not fixed, but a developing ability, based on experience. This position gives students a sense of personal power in that attempting a challenging problem or activity is indeed a way to improve their ability to think.

 

Communication Skills. Communication skills are not only important to the teacher, but they are an integral metacognitive strategy. In the social learning theory section, it was pointed out that teachers who adopt cooperative learning strategies will need to teach students new social norms and social learning skills. These skills (conciseness,listening, reflecting) are communication skills. An important metacognitive communication skill is reflection. Having students consider other students' ideas, as well as their own, or having students rephrase what they just said, are ways of building upon and extending ideas.

 

Journal Keeping. Keeping a diary or log of learning experiences is not new to the education community. Many teachers and students have kept logs of their thinking, not only as a record, but more importantly as a haven for synthesizing and analyzing their thinking. The log is a place where the student can revisit ideas and review thinking processes used in an activity. Combining some of the other strategies, especially mind mapping, illustrating and drawing and brainstorming, can enhance the quality of logs.

 

Metacognitive strategies are tools for the science teacher to help students understand their own thinking.

 

 

Student Learning Styles

 

Students learn in a variety of ways, and to accommodate these differences teachers have devised a variety of methods and strategies to correlate with these student learning styles. Various strategies have been researched and implemented in the classroom. For example, Rita and Kenneth Dunn (1978) have developed a comprehensive approach to learning styles and have found that student learning styles are affected by their (1) immediate environment; (2) own emotionality; (3) sociological needs; (4) physical needs and (5) psychological processes. Other researches explored the dichotomous way the left and right hemispheres of the brain process and interpret information. Some researchers have divided student learning styles into categories, such as Bernice McCarthy (1980). She has devised a system in which four learning styles are identified: innovative learners, analytic learners, common-sense learners, and dynamic learners. In this section we will explore these ideas, and identify some implications for science teaching.

 

Students, Teachers and Learning Styles

 

Learning style pertains to how we learn. To some educators, "ones learning style is a biologically and developmentally imposed set of characteristics that explains why the same lecture, readings interactions, classroom settings and teachers affect individuals so differently." Two crucial questions with regard to student learning styles are: In what ways do students differ in their manner of learning? and How do teachers accommodate students with different learning styles? In order to find out you ideas on these two question, please do the following activity before reading ahead.

 

The Psychology of Learning Styles

 

Some students in your class would rather look at pictures of plants, rather than read about them. You might have a student who prefers to discuss questions in a small group rather than participate in a large group discussion. Another student might prefer to learn chemical nomenclature by matching the chemical symbols (printed on blue index cards) with the names of the elements or compounds (green index cards). We all have preferences for the way we learn. What do we know about learning styles, and how can this be helpful to you as a beginning teacher?

 

Discovering Learning Styles. Consider for a moment your own approach to learning. Here are some sample items from an instrument designed to diagnose student learning styles. Do these describe some of your preferences when it comes to learning?

 

    • I study best when it is quiet.

 

    • I have to be reminded often to do something.

 

    • I really like to draw, color, or trace things.

 

    • I like to study by myself.

 

Rita and Kenneth Dunn have explored a universe of factors that affect the way students learn. The 21 Elements Chart summarizes the variety of elements that are categorized into one of the following categories: environmental, emotional, sociological, physical, and psychological. Using the Learning Styles Inventory---a comprehensive approach to assessing students' learning style---researchers have surveyed individuals' styles in each of the twenty-two areas. The instrument consists of over a hundred preference statements (like the four listed above) that identify students' learning preferences. Knowledge of these categories is helpful in understanding the differences in learning preferences of your students. Briefly, here are some comments on the five categories identified by the Dunn's and implications for science teaching.

 

Environmental Elements. It shouldn't surprise us that sound, light, temperature and design impact learning styles. According to Dunn, 10 to 40 percent of students are affected by differences in sound (quiet versus sound), bright or soft lighting warm or cool temperatures, and formal versus informal seating designs. Science teachers have an opportunity to create a physical learning environment that is appealing to a wide range of students. One of the suggestions that the Dunn's make is to "change the classroom box into a multi-faceted learning environment. We will explore the classroom learning environment in greater detail in Chapter 9.

 

Emotional Elements. Motivation, persistence on completing a task, degree of responsibility, and structure (specificity of rules governing work and assignments) constitute emotional elements that affect student learning style.

 

Physical Elements. There are several physical elements including perceptual strengths, intake (of food or drink), time (of the day) and mobility that influence learning. Perceptual strengths refers to learning through the different senses. At the secondary school level, greatest emphasis is given to auditory and visual learning. However, secondary teachers who have used electroboards, flips charts, task cards and other manipulatives have reported increased achievement and interest for the tactile student. Secondary teachers who employed kinesthetic (whole body) activities such as field trips, dramatizing, interviewing, role playing, also reported increases in achievement and interest. Many students also learn better if they are engaged in multisensory learning activities, e.g. combining tactile and kinesthetic, or visual and auditory.

 

Sociological Elements. Do students like to learn alone, in pairs, with a small team or the whole class. The answer from the Dunn's research is that students respond to a variety of social groupings, and appear to be "unresponsive to a consistent instructional routine. "The classroom that provides opportunities not only throughout a science course, but within individual lessons for variety in social groupings is paying attention to the sociological needs of the learner.

 

Psychological Elements.  There are a number of psychological factors that psychologists have examined related to learning style. Two major ideas emerge in this regard, namely, how learners process information, and how learners perceive. Processing information can be viewed as a global process or an analytical process. Global (processing in wholes) versus analytical (processing in parts) is analogous to right hemispheric thinking and left hemispheric thinking. Learners appear to perceive either actively or reflectively.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Section 2: Teaching & Assessing Students

 

 

 

Articulate Clear Goals Using Developmentally Appropriate Lessons

l   Developmentally appropriate education: programs and activities designed to meet the cognitive, emotional, social, and physical needs of students

l    (Woolfolk, 1998)

l   Teachers in these classrooms:

n     have knowledge of students’ development within an age span.

n     understand needs of individual students.

n     implement hands-on, engaging lessons within a constructivist environment.

l    (Santrock, 2001)

Planning Lessons

ü   Determine objective

ü   Analyze task to determine how it is to be taught (task analysis).

ü   Design activities

ü   Gather materials

ü   Outline the introduction (anticipatory set)

ü     Does it activate prior knowledge?

ü     Is it motivating?

ü   Review procedures, closure, & follow-up.

ü   Do assessment & evaluation match the objective?

 

Create an Environment for Student Learning

l   Create a learning climate that encourages all students to participate.

l   Establish & maintain a positive rapport with students.

l   Communicate challenging learning expectations.

l   Establish & maintain consistent classroom behavior.

l   Make sure students understand the content you’re teaching & monitor their learning.

l   Motivate students to learn by using various teaching approaches & adjusting lessons to meet students’ needs.

l   Use instructional time effectively.

 

Assessment & Evaluation

Assessment: All forms of information gathering; may be formal or informal. Terms related to assessment:

Validity: the test measures what it is meant to measure.

 

Reliability: test performance remains consistent across testing times & settings.

 

Evaluation: Making decisions based on the multiple and varied assessments given to students.

 

Assessing Students’ Learning: Types of Evaluation

Formative: given during units of instruction. Answers: How is the student doing? Tied to curriculum, is timely, & administered often. A math quiz.

 

Summative: given at the conclusion of instruction. Answers: How much did the student learn? This information is often used to determine a grade. A test at the end of a science unit.

 

Diagnostic: identifies student’s strengths and weaknesses.

 

Norm-referenced: compares the student against other students. Often covers a broad range of content. Standardized tests.

Criterion-referenced: identifies skills or knowledge the student has learned. Is closely related to the curriculum & often a formative type of assessment. Complete algebra problems with 85% accuracy.

 

Authentic: uses “real life” tasks or products. Write an editorial for a local paper.

 

Performance: authentic assessment in which student’s performance is evaluated against realistic criteria; may involve both process & product.

 

Terms Used with Standardized Tests

Raw Score: Score earned by student.

 

Percentile Rank: % of those who scored at or below an individual’s score.

 

Stanine: Whole number score ranging from 1-9 with a mean of 5. Each stanine represents a wide range of scores. Use for ranking.

 

Grade Equivalent: Average score of students who took the test at a given grade level and time frame; identified as grade & month. 6.3 = third month of 6th grade. Not recommended as it is easily misinterpreted.

 

Percentile Bands: A range of scores around a mean score expressed in percentile; 75th to 85th percentile.

 

Mean: Average score of a group of tests.

 

Median: Middle score of a group of tests.

 

Mode: Most frequent score in a group of tests.

 

Norm: A group whose scores served as a standard for evaluating any student’s test.                   

(Santrock, 2001)

 

What are Performances and Exhibitions?

 

Some examples:

• performing a science experiment

 

• performing a music recital

 

• giving a speech

 

• creating a newspaper

 

• science fair

 

• mock trial

 

• debate

 

 

Performances are applications of learning and are integral in the learning and transfer process.

Performance - what the students actually do: researching, writing, speaking, participating in discussions, role-playing in simulations, etc.

Assessment - evolves from activities and criteria which can be designed not only by the teacher but also by the teacher and the students.

 

One of the key steps in designing an exhibition is "planning backwards."

 

 

Why Should We Use Performances and Exhibitions?

Dewey's philosophy of active learning (confirmed by developmental psychologists - e.g., Piaget, Vygotsky). Students get involved and take ownership in the learning proces.

 

Some outcomes from exhibitions:

 

• Accessing information

 

• Use of technology

 

• Collaboration

 

• Higher-order thinking skills

 

• Problem-solving

 

• Written and oral communication

 

• Reflection on ethical issues

 

• Persistence

 

• Appreciation of disparate value systems

 

• Decision-making

 

• Conflict resolution

 

 

Philosophical cornerstone: "knowledge in use"

 

Represent a culminating experience of learning

 

 

How Should We Assess Performances and Exhibitions?

 

Set standards and criteria in advance (i.e., plan backwards). Criteria communicate your goals and achievement standards - a rubric.

 

 

What is a Portfolio?

 

 

A portfolio is a helpful item in charting a student's progress or learning, collecting data for later analysis, and demonstrating to others (and the student) their accomplishments during a period of time. It assembles in one location the student's materials for more efficient and holistic review.

 

A portfolio can include:

 

• Logs

 

• Journals

 

• Videos

 

• Cassettes

 

• Pictures

 

• Projects

 

• Performances

 

• Assignments

 

 

These may or may not mean much individually, but together they complete a learning picture.

 

Why should we use Porfolios?

 

• Tools for discussion with peers, teachers, and parents

 

• Opportunities for students to demonstrate their skills and understanding

 

• Opportunities for students to reflect on their work

 

• Chances to set future goals

 

• Documentation of students' development and growth in ability, attitudes, and expression

 

• Demonstrations of different learning styles, multiple intelligences, cultural diversity

 

• Chances for students to make critical choices about what they select for their portfolio

 

• Opportunities for students to trace the development of their learning

 

• Opportunities for students to make connections between prior knowledge and new learning

 

How should we use Portfolios?

 

"Portfolios allow students to assume ownership in ways that few other instructional approaches allow. Portfolio assessment requires students to collect and reflect on examples of their work. . . . If carefully assembled, portfolios become an intersection of instruction and assessment: they are not just instruction or just assessment but, rather, both. Together, instruction and assessment give more than either gives separately" (Paulson, Paulson, and Meyer, 1991, p. 61).

 

Questions to ask before beginning a Portfolio System

 

1. How will it be used?

 

• Period of time

 

• Everything or part saved and passed on?

 

• Sent home to parents?

 

• Reflective piece for students?

 

• Part of a grade?

 

 

2. How should the pieces in the portfolio be selected?

 

• "Still in process" or completed pieces?

 

• "Best" work or "Typical" work?

 

• Teacher or student or both selects pieces?

 

• Comments from teacher, peers be included?

 

 

3. What specific pieces should be included?

 

• Homework

 

• Class quizzes and tests

 

• Peer edited assignments

 

• Group work

 

• Logs, journals

 

• Projects

 

• Written work

 

• Rough drafts

 

• Cassettes, videos, CD's

 

• Graphic organizers

 

• Self-assessments

 

• Goals

 

• Pictures

 

• Experiments

 

• Samples of artwork, etc.

 

 

4. What are the evaluation options?

 

• A tool that is not graded

 

• One grade on the entire portfolio

 

• Each piece graded separately

 

• Pieces (all or some) passed on to the next teacher

 

• Used in interview process

 

 

5. How can the portfolio be organized?

 

• Creative cover

 

• Table of contents

 

• Contents arranged per table of contents

 

• Written comment about each piece or items - why selected

 

• Self-assessment of portfolio

 

• Letter from teacher or parents with feedback, comments

 

 

6. What are the options for conducting portfolio conferences?

 

• Student-teacher

 

• Student-student

 

• Cross-age

 

• Student-parent

 

• Student-parent-teacher

 

• Exhibition

 

 

What are Projects?

 

A project is a formal assignment given to an individual student or a group of students on a topic related to the curriculum. It may involve both in-class and out-of-class research and development.

 

Examples:

 

• Models • Tables • Photographs • Videotapes

 

• Maps • Graphs • Plays • Book

 

• Pictures • Collages • Films

 

 

Primarily a learning activity rather than an evaluation activity.

 

 

Why Should We Use Projects?

 

 

• Encourage students to produce rather than reproduce.

 

• They help students develop and enhance

 

• communication

 

• technical

 

• interpersonal

 

• organizational

 

• problem-solving

 

• decision-making skills

 

• creativity

 

 

• Not all students can achieve the same outcomes in the same way (i.e., multiple intelligences, learning styles, etc.)

 

 

Advantages of the Project Assignment

 

• Allows students to formulate their own questions and then try to find answers to them

 

• Provides students with opportunities to use their multiple intelligences to create a project

 

• Allows teachers to assign projects at different levels of difficulty to account for individual learning styles and ability levels

 

• Can be motivating to students

 

• Provides an opportunity for positive interaction and collaboration among peers

 

• Increases the self-esteem of students who would not get recognition on tests or traditional writing assignments

 

• Allows for students to share their learning with others

 

• Can achieve essential learning outcomes through application and transfer

 

How Should We Use Projects?

 

 

Provide samples or models of completed projects. Let students see models at below average, average, and superior levels.

 

 

Assess projects using rubrics and other performance criteria.

 

 

 

 

What is a rubric?

 

When and why do you use a rubric?

 

A rubric allows someone to evaluate the information collected by assessment.  In a typical traditional test, it’s rather simple to evaluate: You count how many answers are right or wrong by a predetermined “key”, and you calculate the resulting score which results in a “grade.”

 

On the other hand, when you assign a less obvious task such as an essay, a project, a performance, a portfolio, or an exhibit, you can’t just count “right” and “wrong” answers. You have to make evaluative judgments based on some criteria.

 

An effective way to frame the criteria is to create a rubric.  According to Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary, 5th ed., the word rubric means “an authoritative rule” or “an explanatory or introductory commentary.”  A rubric basically defines the criteria by which a work is evaluated and provides different levels of performance for each criterion.  It defines the range of quality. Also, it establishes some degree of validity and reliability in evaluating works that lend themselves to subjectivity in evaluation.

 

 

 

Rubrics may be designed for a specific task or may be created for general use.

 

There are two types of rubrics:

 

(1)           Holistic – has one general descriptor for each level of performance as a whole

 

 

 

(2)           Analytic – has descriptors for each level of performance for multiple criteria that are delineated

 

 

 

When creating descriptors, you should:

 

Use rich, descriptive language that provides enough discrimination between levels of performance to allow   other evaluators or students to verify their score, accurately self-assess, and self-correct. Avoid vague words such as “good,” “excellent,” “sufficient,” and “adequate.”  Rather, describe what these might be with respect to the task.

 

 

When choosing criteria, you should:

 

Use criteria that reflect the goals of the task. For example, if the task is to write an essary, what goals of the    learning would be important? Perhaps coherence, form, punctuation, and content would be important. If the   task was to perform a musical piece on piano, the criteria might be very different.

 

It is helpful to discuss the rubric with students before the assessment, so they are aware of how they will be evaluated. It may even be helpful to have students work with you to create the rubric, as they will very likely invest themselves more fully in the assessment process.

    

 

Rubrics and Scoring Guides

 

Rubrics generally provide descriptors for different levels of performance on an assessment task. They provide the framework by which a teacher can assign a score or grade to an assessment.  Sometimes, it’s useful to create a scoring guide which typically is just an adaptation of the rubric on which the teacher can insert numbers (based on the rubric) into appropriate places and eventually add them up for a score.  It can be tricky when you translate a rubric to a score.  You usually have to establish beforehand what range on the rubric will translate to what range of scores or grades. For example, a 4 on a rubric might translate to a range of 90-100%; a 3 to a range of 80-89%, and so on. Remember, you are the evaluator. Someone has to make the judgment even when using a rubric. Take the responsibility and be able to support your judgment with some objective criteria (i.e., the rubric).

 

 

Stages in Rubric Construction

 

 

 

1.         Important decisions

 

 

 

a.           what the criteria will be

 

b.           how many rubrics will be used (one holistic one, separate one for each criterion)

 

c.           how fine a discrimination to make (how many different points on the scale there will be)

 

d.           what point on the scale will be the “cut score” (pass/fail)

 

 

 

2.             Editing decisions based on reviewers, students, and use

 

 

 

a.           revising language of descriptors to make it more descriptive and less based on comparative or evaluative language (using bulleted specific indicators under each general paragraph description)

 

b.           including more points to make finer distinctions

 

3.             Logic of design

 

 

 

a.           Decide which of the possible criteria are most important vs. feasibility

 

b.           Decide whether there will be one holistic rubric or various analytic-trait rubrics for each of the priority criteria

 

1.           Holistic quicker and easier to write and use

 

2.           Analytic give better feedback and more valid results

 

c.           Build a 4 to 6 point rubric regardless of how many points on a scale you want it to eventually use (highest numbers to highest performance)

 

d.           Avoid use evaluative words (i.e., “excellent”). Rather, use descriptive words (i.e., “uses correct grammar and follows formal usage rules”)

 

e.           Build from the top describing exemplary performance (this is the target and anchor for scoring)

 

f.             Be sure to provide students samples of excellence to make clear what performances must be to be considered excellent with the chosen criteria

 

g.           An indicator is a concrete sign of a criterion being met. Example: An assessment of good speaking.

 

 

 

The criterion: “student speaks in an engaging manner”

 

 Indicators of that criterion being met:

 

· makes eye contact

 

· modulates voice pleasantly

 

· uses stories and humor appropriate to audience and context

 

· handles audience questions gracefully

 

 

 

A Great Rubric Resource on the Web

 

http://www.odyssey.on.ca/~elaine.coxon/rubrics.htm

 

Another Great Rubric Resource on the Web

 

http://school.discovery.com/schrockguide/assess.html

 

A Rubric Template

 

http://edweb.sdsu.edu/triton/july/rubrics/Rubric_Template.html

 

 

 

 

 

 

Rubric Builder

 

http://www.landmark-project.com/classweb/tools/rubric_builder.php3

 

A Report Rubric

 

http://www.sdcoe.k12.ca.us/score/actbank/reportrub.html

 

Some Rubrics on Speaking and Writing

 

http://www.fcps.k12.va.us/DIS/OHSICS/forlang/PALS/rubrics/index.htm

 

 

 

 

Grouping Students in the Classroom

l   Group students according to desired outcomes of lessons. Heterogeneous groupings are most common. Be diverse in gender, ability, race, ethnicity, and SES.

l   Cooperative learning group work is not the same as small group work. In cooperative learning groups, each student takes on a specific role and the emphasis in on collaboration. Often cooperative groups have 2 (dyads) or 4 members. Each student is held accountable for his or her work.

 

 

Communicate Challenging Learning Expectations

l   Provide interesting, motivating activities.

 

l   Don’t make the tasks/objectives too easy.

 

l   Encourage students to focus on what they will learn, not how they will perform (grades).

 

Approaches to Classroom Management

Kounin: Teachers need to have “withitness” or an awareness of what is happening in their classrooms Also, they need to keep lessons moving at an appropriate pace and have smooth transitions between lessons (movement management).

 

Canter: Using “assertive discipline,” teachers clearly communicate their expectations and follow through with expectations; students have a choice -- follow the rules or face the consequences.

 

Glasser: Teachers use class meetings to change behavior within the classroom; meetings focus on the behavior rather than the student(s).

 

Make Sure Students Understand the Content You’re Teaching

l   Meaningful Learning: “Connect” new knowledge or content to previously learned material.

 

l   Schema Theory: Schemata stored in the long-term memory provide a structure for making sense of new information.

 

l   Piaget’s Assimilation and Accommodation: Students need prior knowledge and experiences to which they can relate new information.

 

Teacher-Centered Instruction

l   Direct or Expository Instruction: Often used when students have limited schema or a skill is being taught. Teacher directs, monitors, and evaluates students using lecture, demos, questions, & discussion. This is a highly structured approach that makes the most of academic learning time.

 

l   Mastery Learning: Students learn one concept before moving on to the next.

 

l   Homework: Effective when the assignment is meaningful and students are held accountable for their work.

 

Student-Centered Instruction

l   Student Centered Instruction involves more student input, self-guidance, and responsibility.

 

l   Discovery Learning: Students construct their own understandings of a given concept. In “pure” discovery learning, students work on their own with little/no instruction from the teacher. Based on the work of John Dewey and Jerome Bruner.

 

l   Guided Discovery Learning: Students are “guided” by the teacher through questions and directions.

 

http://chd.gse.gmu.edu/immersion/knowledgebase   Exellent resource for instruction-A matrix of instructional strategies and learning theories.

ANCHORED INSTRUCTION

 

Exponent/Originator

 

    John Bransford;

 

    the CTGV

 

Overview

 

    Anchored instruction has become an important paradigm for technology-based learning that has been developed by the Cognition & Technology Group at Vanderbilt (CTGV) under the leadership of John Bransford. While many people have contributed to the theory and research of anchored instruction, Bransford is the principal spokesperson and hence the theory is attributed to him. The initial focus of the work was on the development of interactive videodisc tools that encouraged students and teachers to pose and solve complex, realistic problems. The video materials serve as `anchors' (macro-contexts) for all subsequent learning and instruction. As explained by CTGV( 1993, p52):

 

        The design of these anchors was quite different from the design of videos that were typically used in education...our goal was to create interesting, realistic contexts that encouraged the active construct ion of knowledge by learners. Our anchors were stories rather than lectures and were designed to be explored by students and teachers.

 

    The use of interactive videodisc technology makes it possible for students to easily explore the content. Anchored instruction is closely related to the situated learning framework (see CTGV, 1990, 1993).

 

Application

 

    The primary application of anchored instruction has been to elementary reading, language arts and mathematics skills. The CLGV has developed a set of interactive videodisc programs called the `Jasper Woodbury Problem Solving Series'. These programs involve adventures in which mathematical concepts are used to solve problems. However, the anchored instruction paradigm is based upon a general model of problem-solving (Bransford & Stein, 1993).

 

Example

 

    One of the early anchored instruction activities involved the use of the film, `Young Sherlock Holmes' in interactive videodisc form. Students were asked to examine the film in terms of causal connections, motives of the characters, and authenticity of the settings in order to understand the nature of life in Victorian England. The film provides the anchor or situated context, for an understanding of story-telling and a particular historical era.

 

Principles

 

       1. Learning and teaching activities should be designed around a `anchor' (or situation) which should be some sort of case-study or problem situation.

       2. Curriculum materials should allow exploration by the learner.

 

CONTIGUITY THEORY

 

Exponent/Originator

 

    E. Guthrie

 

Overview

    Contiguity theory specifies that `a combination of stimuli which has accompanied a movement will on its recurrence tend to be followed by that movement'. According to Guthrie, all learning was a consequence of association between a particular stimulus and response. Simple contiguous (close together in time or space) association of a stimulus and response can lead to a change in behaviour. Contiguity theory further suggests that forgetting is due to interference rather than the passage of time; stimuli become associated with new responses and old responses become `unlearned'. In this theory, the role of motivation is to create a state of arousal and activity which produces reponses that can be conditioned.

 

Application

 

    Contiguity theory is intended to be a general theory of learning, although most of the research supporting the theory was done with animals. Guthrie did apply his framework to personality disorders (e.g. Guthrie, 1938).

 

Example

 

    The classic experimental paradigm for Contiguity theory is cats learning to escape from a puzzle box (Guthrie & Horton, 1946). Guthrie used a glass-paneled box which allowed him to photograph the exact movements of cats. These photographs showed that cats learned to repeat the same sequence of movements associated with the preceding escape from the box. Improvement comes about because irrelevant movements are unlearned or not included in successive associations.

 

Principles

 

       1. In order for conditioning to occur, the organism must actively respond (i.e. do things).

       2. Since learning involves the conditioning of specific behaviors, instruction must present very specific tasks.

       3. Exposure to many variations in stimulus patterns is desirable in order to produce a generalized response.

       4. The last response in a stimulus-response situation should be correct since it is this one that will be associated.

 

CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORY

 

Exponent/Originator

 

    J. Bruner

 

Overview

 

    Many regard constructivism as a meta theory, in that it encompasses a number of cognitive and other theories of learning the nature and characteristics of constructivism in this wider context are described and discussed elsewhere.

 

    A major theme in the theoretical framework of Bruner is that learning is an active process in which learners construct new ideas or concepts based upon their current/past knowledge. The learner selects and transforms information, constructs hypotheses, and makes decisions, relying on a cognitive structure to do so. Cognitive structure (i.e. schema, mental models) provides meaning and organization to experiences and allows the individual to `go beyond the information given'. As far as instruction is concerned, the teacher should try and encourage students to discover principles by themselves. The teacher and student should engage in an active dialog (i.e. socratic learning); the main task of the teacher is to present information to be learned to match the learner's current state of understanding. Curriculum should be organized in a spiral manner so that the student continually builds upon what they have already learned.

 

    Bruner (1966) states that a theory of instruction should address four major aspects:

 

        * students' predisposition towards learning;

        * the ways in which a body of knowledge can be structured so that it can be most readily grasped by the learner;

        * the most effective sequences in which to present material; and,

        * the nature and pacing of rewards and punishments.

 

    Good methods for structuring knowledge should result in simplifying, generating new propositions and increasing the manipulation of information. In his more recent work, Bruner (1986, 1990) has expanded his theoretical framework to encompass the social and cultural aspects of learning.

 

Application

 

    Constructivist theory is a general framework for instruction based upon the study of cognition. Much of the theory is linked to child development research(especially Piaget's). The ideas outlined in Bruner (1960) originated from a conference focused on science and math learning. Bruner illustrated his theory in the context of mathematics and social science programs for young children (see Bruner, 1973). The original development of the framework for reasoning processes is described in Bruner, Goodnow & Austin (1951). Bruner (1983)focuses on language learning in young children.

 

Example

 

    This example is taken from Bruner (1973): `The concept of prime numbers appears to be more readily grasped when the child, through construction, discovers that certain handfuls of beans cannot be laid out in completed rows and columns.Such quantities have either to be laid out in a single file or in an incomplete row-column design in which there is always one extra or one too few to fill the pattern. These patterns, the child learns, happen to be called prime. It is easy for the child to go from this step to the recognition that a multiple table, so called, is a record sheet of quantities in completed multiple rows and columns. Here is factoring, multiplication and primes in a construction that can be visualized.'

 

Principles

 

       1. Instruction must be concerned with the experiences and contexts that make the student willing and able to learn (readiness).

       2. Instruction must be structured so that it can be easily grasped by the student (spiral organization).

       3. Instruction should be designed to facilitate extrapolation and or fill in the gaps (going beyond the information given).

 

 

CONDITIONS OF LEARNING

 

Exponent/Originator

 

    R. Gagne

 

Overview

 

    This theory stipulates that there are several different types or levels of learning. The significance of these classifications is that different types of learning require different types of instruction. Gagne identifies five major categories of learning:

 

        * verbal information;

        * intellectual skills;

        * cognitive strategies;

        * motor skills; and,

        * attitudes.

 

    Different internal and external conditions are necessary for each type of learning. For example, for cognitive strategies to be learned, there must be a chance for learners to practice developing new solutions to problems; to learn attitudes, the learner must be exposed to a credible role model or persuasive arguments. Gagne suggests that learning tasks for intellectual skills can be organized in a hierarchy according to complexity:

 

        * stimulus recognition;

        * response generation;

        * procedure following;

        * use of terminology;

        * discriminations;

        * concept formation;

        * rule application; and,

        * problem solving.

 

    The significance of the hierarchy is to identify prerequisites that should be completed to facilitate learning at each level and to provide a basis for the sequencing of instruction. In addition, the theory outlines nine instructional events and corresponding cognitive processes:

 

       1. gaining attention (reception);

       2. informing learners of the objective (expectancy);

       3. stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval);

       4. presenting the stimulus (selective perception);

       5. providing learning guidance (semantic encoding)

       6. eliciting performance (responding);

       7. providing feedback (reinforcement);

       8. assessing performance (retrieval);

       9. enhancing retention and transfer (generalization).

 

    These events should satisfy or provide the necessary conditions for learning and serve as the basis for designing instruction and selecting appropriate media (Gagne, Briggs & Wager, 1992).

 

Application

 

    While Gagne's theoretical framework covers all aspects of learning, the focus of the theory is on intellectual skills. The theory has been applied to the design of instruction in all domains (Gagner & Driscoll, 1988). In its original formulation (Gagne, 1 962), special attention was given to military training settings. Gagne (1987) addresses the role of instructional technology in learning.

 

Example

 

    The following example illustrates a teaching sequence corresponding to the nine instructional events for the objective, Recognize an equilateral triangle:

 

       1. Gain attention:--show variety of triangles;

       2. Identify objective --pose question: What is an equilateral triangle? ;

       3. Recall prior learning--review definitions of triangles;

       4. Present stimulus--show an equilateral triangle and describe it's properties;

       5. Guide learning--show example of how to create equilateral triangle;

       6. Elicit performance--ask students to create 5 different examples;

       7. Provide feedback--check all examples as correct/incorrect;

       8. Assess performance--provide scores and remediation;

       9. Enhance retention/transfer--show pictures of objects and ask students to identify equilaterals.

 

    Gagne (1985, chapter 12) provides examples of events for each category of learning outcomes.

 

Principles

 

       1. Different instruction is required for different learning outcomes.

       2. For learning to occur, specific conditions of learning need to be present.

       3. The specific operations that constitute instructional events are different for each different type of learning outcome.

 

 

DUAL CODING THEORY

 

Exponent/Originator

 

    A. Paivio

 

Overview

 

    The dual coding theory proposed by Paivio attempts to give equal weight to verbal and non-verbal processing. Paivio (1986) states:

 

        Human cognition is unique in that it has become specialized for dealing simultaneously with language and with nonverbal objects and events. Moreover, the language system is peculiar in that it deals directly with linguistic input and output (in the form of speech or writing) while at the same time serving a symbolic function with respect to nonverbal objects, events, and behaviors. Any representational theory must accommodate this dual functionality. (p 53)

 

    The theory assumes that there are two cognitive subsystems, one specialized for the representation and processing of nonverbal objects/events (i.e. imagery), and the other specialized for dealing with language. Paivio also postulates two different types of representational units: `imagens' for mental images and `logogens' for verbal entities. Logogens are organized in terms of associations and hierarchies while imagens are organized in terms of part-whole relationships. Dual Coding theory identified three types of processing: (1) representational, the direct activation of verbal or non-verbal representations, (2) referential, the activation of the verbal system by the nonverbal system or vice-versa, and (3) associative processing, the activation of representations within the same verbal or nonverbal system. A given task may require any or all of the three kinds of processing.

 

Application

 

    Dual coding theory has been applied to many cognitive phenomena including: mnemonics, problem-solving, concept learning and language. Clark & Paivio (1991) present dual coding theory as a general framework for educational psychology.

 

Example

 

    Many experiments reported by Paivio and others support the importance of imagery in cognitive operations. In one experiment, participants saw pairs of items that differed in roundness (e.g. tomato, goblet) and were asked to indicate which member of the pair was rounder. The objects were presented as words, pictures, or word-picture pairs. The response times were slowest for word-word pairs, intermediate for the picture-word pairs, and fastest for the picture-picture pairs.

 

Principles

 

       1. Recall/recognition is enhanced by presenting information in both visual and verbal form

 

 

EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING

Exponent/Originator

 

    C. Rogers

 

Overview

 

    Rogers distinguished two types of learning: cognitive (meaningless) and experiential (significant). The former corresponds to academic knowledge such as learning vocabulary or multiplication tables and the latter refers to applied knowledge such as learning about engines in order to repair a car. The key to the distinction is that experiential learning addresses the needs and wants of the learner. Rogers lists these qualities of experiential learning:

 

        * personal involvement;

        * learner-initiated;

        * evaluated by learner; and,

        * pervasive effects on learner.

 

    To Rogers, experiential learning is equivalent to personal change and growth. Rogers feels that all human beings have a natural propensity to learn; the role of the teacher is to facilitate such learning. This includes:

 

       1. setting a positive climate for learning;

       2. clarifying the purposes of the learner(s);

       3. organizing and making available learning resources;

       4. balancing intellectual and emotional components of learning; and,

       5. sharing feelings and thoughts with learners but not dominating.

 

    According to Rogers, learning is facilitated when:

 

        * the student participates completely in the learning process and has control over its nature and direction;

        * it is primarily based upon direct confrontation with practical, social, personal or research problems; and,

        * self-evaluation is the principal method of assessing progress or success.

 

    Rogers also emphasizes the importance of learning to learn and an openness to change.

 

Application

 

    Roger's theory of learning originates from his views about psychotherapy and a humanistic approach to psychology. It applies primarily to adult learners and has influenced other theories of adult learning. Combs (1982) examines the significance of Roger's work to education. Rogers & Frieberg (1994) discuss applications of the experiential learning framework to the classroom.

 

Example

 

    A person interested in becoming rich might seek out books or classes on ecomomics, investment, great financiers, banking, etc. Such an individual would perceive (and learn) any information provided on this subject in a much different fashion than a person who is assigned a reading or class.

 

Principles

 

       1. Significant learning takes place when the subject matter is relevant to the personal interests of the student;

       2. Learning which is threatening to the self (e.g., new attitudes or perspectives) are more easily assimilated when external threats are at a minimum;

       3. Self-initiated learning is the most lasting and pervasive.

 

 

INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY

 

Exponent/Originator

 

    G. Miller

 

Overview

 

    George A. Miller has provided two theoretical ideas that are fundamental to the information processing framework and cognitive psychology more generally. The first concept is `chunking' and the capacity of short term (working) memory. Miller (1956) presented the idea that short-term memory could only hold 5-9 chunks of information (seven plus or minus two) where a chunk is any meaningful unit. A chunk could refer to digits, words, chess positions, or people's faces. The concept of chunking and the limited capacity of short term memory became a basic element of all subsequent theories of memory.

 

    The second concept, that of information processing, uses the computer as a model for human learning. Like the computer, the human mind takes in information, performs operations on it to change its form and content, stores and locates it and generates reponses to it. Thus, processing involves gathering and representing information, or encoding; holding information or retention; and getting at the information when needed, or retrieval. Information processing theorists approach learning primarily through a study of memory.

 

Application

 

    Information processing theory has become a general theory of human cognition; the phenomenon of chunking has been generally verified for all levels of cognitive processing. Of late, cognitive psychologists have begun to consider how the limitations of working memory are not usually taken into account in designing computer assisted instruction, and they have begun to design cognitively robust instructional software that enhances the learning process using CAL materials.

 

Example

 

    The classic example of chunks is the ability to remember long sequences of binary numbers because they can be encoded into decimal form. For example, the sequence 10100 01001 11001 101 1010 could easily be remembered as 20 9 25 5 10. Of course, this would only work for someone who can convert binary to decimal numbers (i.e. the chunks are `meaningful').

 

    Information processing approaches to learning find expression in other cognitive theories of learning, but in general they can be applied to instruction by following these guidelines:

 

       1. Make sure you have the students' attention;

       2. Help students focus on the most important details and separate less vital information;

       3. Help students make connections between new information and what they already know;

       4. Provide for repetition and review of information;

       5. Present material (instruction) in a clear, organized, way;

       6. Focus on meaning, not memorization, of information.

 

Principles

 

       1. Short term memory (or attention span) is limited to seven chunks of information.

       2. Processing information in sequential steps is a fundamental cognitive process.

 

MULTIPLE LEARNING THEORY

 

Exponent/Originator

 

    Howard Gardner

 

Overview

 

    Multiple Intelligences theory is a pluralized way of understanding the intellect. Recent advances in cognitive science, developmental psychology and neuroscience suggest that each person's level of intelligence, as it has been traditionally considered, is actually made up of autonomous faculties that can work individually or in concert with other faculties.

 

    Howard Gardner has identified seven such faculties, which he labels as `Intelligences':

 

        * Musical Intelligence

        * Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence

        * Logical-Mathematical Intelligence

        * Linguistic Intelligence

        * Spatial Intelligence

        * Interpersonal Intelligence

        * Intrapersonal Intelligence

 

    This view stands in stark contrast to the traditional view of intelligence, which is often discussed in terms of a person's ability to solve problems, utilize logic, and think critically. A person's intelligence, traditionally speaking, is contained in his or her general intellect--in other words, how each and every one of us comprehend, examine, and respond to outside stimuli, whether it be to solve a math problem correctly or to anticipate an opponent's next move in a game of tennis.

 

OPERANT CONDITIONING

 

Exponent/Originator

 

    B.F. Skinner

 

Overview

 

    The theory of B.F. Skinner is based upon the idea that learning is a function of change in overt behavior. Changes in behavior are the result of an individual's response to events (stimuli) that occur in the environment. A response produces a consequence such as defining a word, hitting a ball, or solving a math problem. When a particular Stimulus-Response (S-R) pattern is reinforced (rewarded), the individual is conditioned to respond. Skinner's is usually taken to be the most pervasive but not the only form of behaviorism (see, for example, (e.g. Contiguity theory). One of the distinctive aspects of Skinner's theory is that it attempts to provide behavioral explanations for a broad range of cognitive phenomena.

 

    Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner's S-R theory. A reinforcer is anything that strengthens the desired response. It could be verbal praise, a good grade or a feeling of increased accomplishment or satisfaction. The theory also covers negative reinforcers (punishment) that result in the reduction of undesired responses.

 

Application

 

    Operant conditioning has been widely applied in clinical settings (i.e. behavior modification) as well as teaching (i.e. classroom management) and instructional development (e.g. programmed instruction).

 

Example

 

    By way of example, consider the implications of this theory for the development of programmed instruction (Markle, 1969; Skinner, 1968):

 

       1. Practice should take the form of question (stimulus)-answer (response) frames which expose the student to the subject in gradual steps;

       2. Ensure the learner makes a response for every frame and also receives immediate feedback;

       3. Arrange the difficulty of the questions so the response is always correct and hence a positive reinforcement;

       4. Ensure that good performance in the lesson is paired with secondary reinforcers such as verbal praise, rewards (prizes) and good grades.

 

Principles

 

       1. Behavior that is positively reinforced will reoccur; intermittent reinforcement is particularly effective;

       2. Information should be presented in small amounts so that responses can be reinforced (`shaping');

       3. Reinforcements will generalize across similar stimuli (`stimulus generalization') producing secondary conditioning.

 

SITUATED LEARNING

 

Exponent/Originator

 

    J. Lave

 

Overview

 

    Lave argues that learning as it normally occurs is a function of the activity, context and culture in which it occurs (i.e. it is situated). This contrasts with traditional classroom learning activities which involve knowledge which is often presented in an abstract form and out of context. Social interaction is a critical component of situated learning--learners become involved in a `community of practice' which embodies certain beliefs and behaviors to be acquired. As the beginner or newcomer moves from the periphery of this community to its center, they become more active and engaged within the culture and hence assume the role of expert or `oldtimer'.

 

    Furthermore, situated learning is usually unintentional (incidental) rather than deliberate. These ideas are what Lave & Wenger (1991) call the process of `legitimate peripheral participation'. Other researchers have further developed the theory of situated learning. Brown, Collins & Duguid (1989) emphasize the idea of cognitive apprenticeship:

 

        Cognitive apprenticeship supports learning in a domain by enabling students to acquire, develop and u se cognitive tools in authentic domain activity. Learning, both outside and inside school, advances through collaborative social interaction and the social construction of knowledge.

 

    Brown et al., also emphasize the need for a new epistemology for learning --one that emphasizes active perception over concepts and representations. Situated learning has antecedents in the work of Vygotsky (social learning).Some theorists strongly advocate the design of learning environments in schools that are centered on the concept of cognitive apprenticeship

 

Application

 

    Situated learning is a general theory of knowledge acquisition. It has been applied in the context of technology-based learning activities that focus on problem-solving skills (Cognition & Technology Group at Vanderbilt, 1993). McLellan (1995) provides a collection of articles that describe various perspectives on the theory.

 

Example

 

    Lave & Wenger (1991) provide an analysis of situated learning in five different settings: Yucatan midwives, native tailors, navy quartermasters, meat cutters and alcoholics. In all cases, there was a gradual acquisition of knowledge and skills as novices learned from experts in the context of everyday activities.

 

Principles

 

       1. Knowledge needs to presented and learned in an authentic context, i.e. settings and applications that would normally involve that knowledge.

       2. Learning requires social interaction and collaboration.

 

SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY

 

Exponent/Originator

 

    L. Vygotsky

 

Overview

 

    The major theme of Vygotsky's theoretical framework is that social interactionplays a fundamental role in the development of cognition. Vygotsky (1978)states:

 

        Every function in the child's cultural development appearstwice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first,between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child(intrapsychological). This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logicalmemory, and to the formation of concepts. All the higher functions orig inateas actual relationships between individuals (p57).

 

    A secondaspects of Vygotsky's theory is the idea that the potential for cognitivedevelopment is limited to a certain time span which he calls the `zone ofproximal development' (ZPD). Furthermore, full development during the ZPDdepends upon full social interaction. Also, the range of skills that can bedeveloped with adult guidance or peer collaboration exceeds what can beattained alone.

 

    Vygotsky's theory was an attempt to explain conciousness as the end product ofsocialisation. For example, in the learning of language, our first utteranceswith peers or adults are for the purpose of communication but once masteredthey become internalised and allow `inner speech'. Vygotsky's theory is a keycomponent of situated learning theory andanchored instruction. Because Vygotsky'sfocus was on cognitive development, it is interesting to compare his views withthose of Bruner and Piaget.

 

Application

 

    This is a general theory of cognitive development. Most of the original workwas done in the context of language learning in children (Vygotsky, 1962),although later applications of the framework have been broader (see Wertsch,1985).

 

Example

 

    Vygotsky (1978, p56) provides the example of pointing a finger. Initially, thisbehavior begins as a meaningless grasping motion; however, as people react tothe gesture, it becomes a movement that has meaning. In particular, thepointing gesture represents an interpersonal connection between individuals.

 

Principles

 

       1. Cognitive development is limited to a certain range at any given age.

       2. Full cognitive development requires social interaction.

 

 

 

 

Approaches to Instruction

Instructional Guidelines

 

Knowledge of what constitutes effective teaching and learning has increased significantly. Likewise, knowledge of teaching and learning styles has led to an appreciation of what constitutes the best practice in meeting individual student needs. Learning is an interactive process. Students need to be actively involved in tasks that are achievable, useful, relevant, and challenging if they are to respond successfully to the curriculum challenges posed for them.

 

The teaching methodology recommended in this curriculum is the pattern of Experience - Information - Application - Action. All instruction begins with the students’ experience, so that subsequent teaching may be connected to it. Next, information is given to inform the students’ experience. The students are then required to apply that information, helping them to absorb the information. Finally, the students recommend or take some action which will show that the learning has made a difference in their lives.

 

In any Christian Ethics class there will naturally be a mixture of students who bring with them a diversity of preferred learning styles. A student’s learning style is the unique way in which she or he prefers to learn. Teachers also have unique learning styles. Teachers tend to teach in harmony with their own learning styles. If a teacher consistently teaches using a preferred learning style there may be numerous students whose learning styles do not match that of the teacher and, therefore, their needs will not be met. To meet the diverse needs of students in a Christian Ethics class, it is important that teachers utilize a variety of instructional approaches throughout each unit.

 

 

Instructional Strategies

 

Decision making regarding instructional strategies requires teachers to focus on curriculum, the prior experiences and knowledge of students, learner interests, student learning styles, and the developmental levels of the learner. Such decision making relies on ongoing student assessment that is linked to learning objectives and processes.

 

Although instructional strategies can be categorized, the distinctions are not always clear cut. For example, a teacher may provide information through the lecture method (from the direct instruction strategy) while using an interpretive method to ask students to determine the significance of information that was presented (from the indirect instruction strategy). The five categories of instructional strategies are Direct Instruction, Indirect Instruction, Interactive Instruction, Experiential Learning, and Independent Study. Explanations of the five categories follow.

 

Direct Instruction

 

The direct instruction strategy is highly teacher directed and is among the most commonly used. This strategy includes methods such as lecture, didactic questioning, explicit teaching, practice and drill, and demonstrations. The direct instruction strategy is effective for providing information or developing step-by-step skills. This strategy also works well for introducing other teaching methods, or actively involving students in knowledge construction. Direct instruction is usually deductive. That is, the rule or generalization is presented and then illustrated with examples. While this strategy may be considered among the easier to plan and to use, it is clear that effective direct instruction is often more complex than it would first appear.

 

Direct instruction methods are widely used by teachers, particularly in the higher grades. The predominant use of direct instruction methods needs to be evaluated, and educators need to recognize the limitation of these methods for developing the abilities, processes, and attitudes required for critical thinking, and for interpersonal or group learning. Student understanding of affective and higher level cognitive objectives may require the use of instructional methods associated with other strategies.

 

Indirect Instruction

 

Inquiry, induction, problem solving, decision making, and discovery are terms that are sometimes used interchangeably to describe indirect instruction. In contrast to the direct instruction strategy, indirect instruction is mainly student-centered, although the two strategies can complement each other. Examples of indirect instruction methods include reflective discussion, concept formation, concept attainment, cloze procedure, problem solving, and guided inquiry.

 

Indirect instruction seeks a high level of student involvement in observing, investigating, drawing inferences from data, or forming hypotheses. It takes advantage of students’ interest and curiosity, often encouraging them to generate alternatives or solve problems. It is flexible in that it frees students to explore diverse possibilities and reduces the fear associated with the possibility of giving incorrect answers. Indirect instruction also fosters creativity and the development of interpersonal skills and abilities. Students often achieve a better understanding of the material and ideas under study and develop the ability to draw on these understandings.

 

In indirect instruction, the role of the teacher shifts from lecturer/director to that of facilitator, supporter, and resource person. The teacher arranges the learning environment, provides opportunity for student involvement, and, when appropriate, provides feedback to students while they conduct the inquiry. Indirect instruction relies heavily on the use of print, non-print, and human resources. Learning experiences are greatly enhanced through cooperation between teachers, and between teachers and the teacher-librarians.

 

Indirect instruction, like other strategies, has disadvantages. Indirect instruction is more time consuming than direct instruction, teachers relinquish some control, and outcomes can be unpredictable and less safe. Indirect instruction is not the best way of providing detailed information or encouraging step-by-step skill acquisition. It is also inappropriate when content memorization and immediate recall is desired.

 

Interactive Instruction

 

Interactive instruction relies heavily on discussion and sharing among participants. Students can learn from peers and teachers to develop social skills and abilities, to organize their thoughts, and to develop rational arguments.

 

The interactive instruction strategy allows for a range of groupings and interactive methods. These may include total class discussions, small group discussions or projects, or student pairs or triads working on assignments together. It is important for the teacher to outline the topic, the amount of discussion time, the composition and size of the groups, and reporting or sharing techniques. Interactive instruction requires the refinement of observation, listening, interpersonal, and intervention skills and abilities by both teacher and students.

 

The success of the interactive instruction strategy and its many methods is heavily dependent upon the expertise of the teacher in structuring and developing the dynamics of the group.

 

Experiential Learning

 

Experiential learning is inductive, learner centered, and activity oriented. Personalized reflection about an experience and the formulation of plans to apply learning to other contexts are critical factors in effective experiential learning.

 

Experiential learning can be viewed as a cycle consisting of five phases, all of which are necessary:

 

    * experiencing (an activity occurs)

    * sharing (reactions and observations are shared)

    * analyzing (patterns and dynamics are determined)

    * inferring (principles are derived); and

    * applying (plans are made to use learning in new situations)

 

The emphasis in experiential learning is on the process of learning and not on the product. A teacher can use experiential learning as an instructional strategy both in and outside the classroom. Experiential learning makes use of a variety of resources.

 

There are obvious limitations to the kinds of experiences that students may gain first hand. Concern for student safety, limitations on financial resources, and lack of available time are some of the reasons this strategy cannot be applied in all situations. The benefits to students, however, justify the extra efforts this strategy may require.

Independent Study

 

For the purposes of this document, independent study refers to the range of instructional methods which are purposefully provided to foster the development of individual student initiative, self-reliance, and self-improvement. While independent study may be initiated by student or teacher, the focus here will be on planned independent study by students under guidance or supervision of a classroom teacher. In addition, independent study can include learning in partnership with another individual or as part of a small group.

 

A primary educational goal is to help students become self-sufficient and responsible citizens by enhancing individual potential. Schools can help students to grow as independent learners. However, if the knowledge, abilities, attitudes, and processes associated with independent learning are to be acquired, they must be taught and enough time must be provided for students to practice.

 

Independent study encourages students to take responsibility for planning and pacing their own learning. Independent study can be used in conjunction with other methods, or it can be used as the single instructional strategy for an entire unit. The factors of student maturity and independence are obviously important to the teacher’s planning.

 

Adequate learning resources for independent study are critical. The teacher who wishes to help students become more autonomous learners will need to support the development of their abilities to access and handle information. It is important to assess the abilities students already possess. These abilities often vary widely within any group of students. Specific skills and abilities may then be incorporated into assignments tailored to the capabilities of individual students. The co-operation of the teacher librarian and the availability of materials from the resource center and the community provide additional support.

 

Independent study is very flexible. It can be used as the major instructional strategy with the whole class, in combination with other strategies, or it can be used with one or more individuals while another strategy is used with the rest of the class.

 

Section 3: Communicating with Others

 

Communicating expectations to students

 

Effective verbal and nonverbal communication

 

Cultural and gender differences in communication

 

Stimulating discussion and responses in the classroom

 

 

Section 4: Becoming a Professional Educator

 

Communicating With Students’ Caregivers

ü   Be prepared.

ü   Be positive.

ü   Be objective.

ü   Use good communication skills.

ü   Don’t talk about other students.

                                                            (Santrock, 2001)

 

Tips for Taking the PRAXIS PLT

Preparing for the PLT 

When registering for the Praxis II exams:

 

lPlan to take only one test per day. As convenient as it is to get two tests completed in a single day, the exams are very wearing. Can you give an afternoon exam your best effort when you may be tired from an early morning test? Do not plan on cramming between the exams.

 

lRemember that you may be eligible for testing accommodations. Check with your college or university to find out if you might qualify.

 

Before you begin studying for the PLT

 

lCritique your study and test-taking skills. Students typically exhibit the same strengths and weaknesses during the test that they’ve shown throughout their college career. If multiple-choice tests have been difficult for you in the past, they’ll not get any easier while taking this test. If you know that comprehension can be difficult for you, practice reading a number of case studies so that you can begin to become familiar with the language of the PLT.

 

lDon’t wait until the last week or two before the exam to begin studying!

 

l    Practice writing constructed responses. Limit your time and find out much you can write within a 6-7 minute period.

 

l    Honestly critique how you respond to multiple choice questions. Well written items are difficult and require time to think through when two responses appear to be correct.

 

l    Review your old text books, notes, and the like. Create a study group and talk through study materials.

 

l    Attend available study sessions and develop a study group with your peers.

 

 

 

lFocus on applying the theory when answering questions. This test is based on the pedagogical knowledge you’ve learned from books and classes. As such, rely on theory and what you have learned in classes, rather than your co-operating teacher or other teachers you have worked with in the past.

 

 

lKeep track of your time. It is very easy to lose track of time. I found that the essays required much more time than I had anticipated.

 

 

lBefore reading a case study, briefly review the constructed-response questions associated with the scenario. This may help focus your reading.

 

 

lDo not leave any items blank. Answer every question.

 

Writing Constructed Responses

The following points are based on my experiences while taking the test and a general understanding of how to write essays:

 

lWrite clear and concise constructed responses. While responses need not be long, they should be clear and easily comprehended.

 

lBeing wordy requires more time on your part and may “hide” key information.

 

 

lBe sure that you’re answering the question(s) being asked. Read each item several times and answer all parts of each component. Make use of the line numbers (of the case study) that may be included with question.

 

lRemember that someone has to read your essay. Given the limited time, use your best handwriting.

 

Answering Multiple Choice Items

lContrary to popular belief, multiple choice items are not meant to be easy. Read each item several times as a single word can change its meaning. If appropriate, refer back to the case study.

 

lRead through the items and answer those that you know first. Again, using the booklet, cross out appropriate answers. Read on and come back to those items that you do not know.

 

lOften, two of the four responses can be identified as not being appropriate and remaining two will be more closely related. It is the latter two that require you to reread the items and think through the questions being asked.

 

lIf the terminology is different than that you’ve used or read in the past, examine how the term is being used. A sample multiple choice item uses “expository teaching” as one of its choices. While we do not use that term in my classes, a reader might equate expository with teaching information or direct teaching.

References

Henson, K. T., & Eller, B. F. (1999). Educational psychology for effective teaching. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Parsons, R. D., Hinson, S. L., Sardo-Brown, D. (2001). Educational psychology: A practitioner-researcher model of teaching. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Santrock, J. W. (2001). Educational psychology. New York: McGraw Hill.

Slavin, R. E. (2000). Educational psychology: Theory and practice (6th ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

Woolfolk, A. E. (1999). Educational psychology (7th ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

 

 

INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

 

 

Designing instruction is an iterative process (i.e., not linear, step-by-step, standardized).

 

NOT Begin to End in a straight line

 

BUT Begin to End in a circular, cork-screw line

 

It is also idiosyncratic - its starting points, sequences, and tools will be as varied as the individual contexts.

 

NOT Paint by Number BUT Blank canvas

 

NOT Cooking by Recipe BUT Cooking from available ingredients

 

We are like architects developing a blueprint. The architect cannot, in one fell swoop, listen to a client, review the building codes, research materials and labor costs, and develop a blueprint by following a step-by-step recipe. The blueprint emerges from a process of trying out ideas, getting feedback, matching the proposed ideas to the reality of the available space, and fulfilling client wishes. Each design idea affects other design ideas - and leads to a new, perhaps unexpected, reaction by the client, requiring more changes.

 

Architecture also has crucial givens, such as building codes, budget, and number of rooms and their functions. The challenge in design is to keep playing with the imaginative possibilities while ensuring that all givens are honored. Curricular design has a similar challenge. The designer can imagine all sorts of wonderful possibilities, but a new idea about learning activities may require rethinking the proposed assessment plan. Givens exists here as well - state content standards, realistic time and resources constraints, and student achievement levels and interest - and they must be balanced with our imagination.

 

Where should instructional design begin?

 

Some common beginnings:

 

STATE CONTENT STANDARD

 

FAVORITE LEARNING ACTIVITY

 

PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT

 

EVENT, IDEA, TEXT WE WANT STUDENTS TO UNDERSTAND

 

Where we begin determines our sequence. For example:

 

State content standard What does it mean and how do we know if students have reached it? What learning activities would be appropriate for meeting the standard?

 

Performance task What understandings or learning could such a task assess? What state standards can be addressed by the unit? What changes to the task and scoring criteria can be made to make it a more valid measure?

 

Wherever you begin, you need to gravitate toward the question:

 

Toward what important understandings, knowledge, and skills does it aim?

 

Recommended sequence:

 

Unit's Goals And Objectives Assessment Approaches Instructional Lessons

 

Of course, designing individual lessons is much the same:

 

Lesson' Goals & Objectives Assessment Instructional Strategies & Objectives

 

How do you determine your goals and objectives?

 

Note: This is different from, "How do you write objectives and goals?"

 

You perhaps have a chapter, a traditional unit (i.e., Hamlet), or an idea/concept/skill, you need to teach your students. As you plan your academic year, you should plot these larger themes, ideas, or units to anticipate coverage time and needs. Then, as each unit nears, you can more narrowly focus on its individual needs.

 

For example, you might have a unit on the Civil War. You can phrase the topic as a more focused topic - "causes and effects of the Civil War." Then, you can state it as specific generalizations:

 

    * The Civil War was fought primarily over states' rights issues linked to differences in regional economies (not over the morality of slavery, as commonly believed).

    * The war's effects live on in national politics, regional economies, and cultural differences.

 

Then, you can develop these specific generalizations into unit goals and objectives, and, finally, as you develop supportive lesson plans, each of them can contain more specific objectives, all of which support and lead to the specific generalizations.

 

 How do you arrive at the specific objectives? You have to consider what's worth knowing in this unit/lesson?

 

Wiggins and McTighe suggests three levels of knowledge:

 

Worth Being Familiar With

 

Important to Know and Do

 

Enduring Understanding

 

Following the guidelines above, and using nutrition as a topic:

 

Topic: nutrition

 

More focused topic: the elements of good nutrition

 

Specific generalization:

 

The USDA food pyramid presents relative guidelines for a balanced diet because dietary requirements differ for individuals, depending on such variables as age, activity level, weight, and overall health.

 

We can apply the three levels of knowledge:

 

Knowledge worth being familiar with would include:

 

 

    * General eating patterns and menus from the past.

    * Different conditions requiring dietary restrictions (e.g., high blood pressure, diabetes, and stomach ulcers)

 

Knowledge and skills that are important to know and do:

 

    * Types of food in each of the food groups and their nutritional values.

    * The USDA food pyramid guidelines.

    * Interpret nutritional information on food labels.

 

Understandings that are enduring:

 

    * A balanced diet contributes to physical and mental health.

    * Dietary requirements differ for individuals, depending on variables such as age, activity level, weight, and overall health.

 

So, objectives for a lesson might include:

 

    * Students will be able to create a menu for a week that reflects a balanced diet according to current USDA standards, assuming the person is in good health.

    * Students will create alternate diet plans for a week for a person with diabetes or high blood pressure.

 

 

Why is this your topic - more focused topic - and specific generalization? What is your rationale?

 

What's the point? Why study this unit? What larger purpose and body of knowledge does it tie to? What relevance does it have? You will need to answer this question for yourself because you will need to answer it (at some level) to your students. Students want to know, "Why are we doing this?" or "Why are we learning this?" The rationale answers this question.

 

Some relatively weak responses to this question might include:

 

 

    * Because it's in the curriculum guide.

    * We've always studied that.

    * Because I said so.

    * It's just what you do or learn in eighth grade.

    * I don't know.

    * Why don't you figure it out yourself?

    * It's the state content standard!

 

How do you incorporate content standards?

 

A relatively ineffective way to design instruction is to go down the list of state content standards (or the district curriculum guide derived from these standards) and construct units and/or lessons based on each discrete standard. It is NOT a one-to-one relationship! That is, you don't have to have a unit or a lesson for each standard.

 

In fact, as you consider the standards, they can be combined in units and lessons in more meaningful ways to promote more meaningful learning rather than taught as discrete, unrelated, isolated standards of information or skills.

 

So, when considering content standards, you will probably want to use them dynamically with your planning - that is, you will be aware of them so you can include them in your planning and, at the same time, plan with an awareness of the standards, creatively interweaving them throughout your instructional year, unit, and lesson. One important consideration - as you create objectives, you might be sure to include the essence of the standards so that as students take assessments (i.e., benchmark tests) later, they will have not only learned the material but will make associations on the assessment instrument with the prior learning.

 

Instructional design is not complete without considering resources such as media, technology, materials, and speakers.

 

Your planning will no doubt require instructional materials and media and perhaps outside people such as speakers. You must plan for these needs ahead of time because they do not pop on the scene when needed if you've not anticipated their need and secured their use or presence.

 

Media include:

 

Videotapes

 

Audiotapes

 

Computers

 

Wiring

 

Carts

 

CD's

 

Slide shows (Hyper Studio, Presentations, Power Point)

 

Web pages / Internet

 

DVD's

 

Disc-players

 

Speakers

 

Televisions

 

VCR's

 

Posters

 

Maps

 

Slide projectors

 

Slide carousels

 

Extension cords

 

Power strips

 

Remote controls

 

Overhead transparencies

 

 

Props and models include:

 

Globes

 

Aquariums

 

Fish bowls

 

Cages

 

Tables

 

Boxes

 

Blocks

 

Manipulatives

 

 

People include:

 

 

Parent speaker

 

Specialist speaker

 

Public official

 

Principal

 

Dads and Moms

 

 

Materials include:

 

 

Construction paper

 

Markers

 

Crayons

 

Glue

 

Glitter

 

Paste

 

Scissors

 

Tape

 

Poster board

 

Butcher paper

 

 

Special materials include:

 

 

Handouts (prepared by you or commercially)

 

Extra textbooks

 

Supplemental texts

 

Special books, manuals, etc.

 

Folders

 

*Some of the material in the handout (particularly on pages 1-4) is adapted from Wiggins, G. & McTighe, J. (1998). Understanding by design. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

 

 

What Direct Instruction Is and Is Not

 

 

1. Direct Instruction has the same goals as other approaches that call themselves "constructivist," "holistic," or "child centered." These goals include teaching students to love and be skilled at reading, writing and math; to love and be skilled at understanding what they read and how math works; and to use skills at reading, writing math and comprehending to achieve objectives in other subjects (e.g., history and science) and activities.

 

 

2. Direct Instruction is holistic. For example, Direct Instruction reading teaches everything that is meant by "literacy":

 

a. Pre-reading skills.

 

b. Decoding.

 

c. Comprehension.

 

d. Spelling.

 

e. Writing, reading and editing stories.

 

 

3. Direct Instruction Uses Authentic Literature.

 

The Reading Mastery curriculum uses writings in poetry, fiction, history, plays, women's literature, multicultural literature, math, astronomy, geography, anatomy, physics, and zoology.

 

 

4. Direct Instruction Integrates Smaller Learnings Into Meaningful Wholes.

 

Direct Instruction does not teach basic or simpler skills (parts) in isolation from meaningful contexts (e.g., activities, problems). In the beginning (first 15 minutes) of early lessons in Reading Mastery, the students work on sounds. However, this is done in the context of an activity that is meaningful for

 

students--namely, a quick-paced, small group activity in which all of the students know they are working together to learn a new task, and successfully meet a new challenge

 

 

5. Direct Instruction Is Developmentally Appropriate.

 

The features of DI are consistent with what we know about developmental appropriateness.

 

 

a. DI is in small groups.

 

b. DI is quick-paced.

 

c. DI helps students to be and to feel successful.

 

d. Interaction with teachers is warm and supportive. Students are never singled out when they make errors.

 

e. DI lessons are arranged so that students are slightly challenged with each new task.

 

f. DI teaches moral principles relevant to students; e.g., to help other students and not tease; to show respect for the group process; to try hard.

 

 

6. Direct Instruction Is Not Drill and Kill. At most, the teacher has students practice an action a few times until they are "firm." "Try that again. One more time. Great!" Additional practice--to assure fluency, generalization, retention, and independence (mastery)--is given later, when the skill is integrated with other skills in larger tasks.

 

 

7. Direct Instruction Is Not Rote Learning. All knowledge systems involve some rote learning--sheer

 

memorization, because there are basic (irreducible) concepts that have nothing to do with reasoning; In English, "z" says "zzz." In math, 2 and "two" mean //. However, Direct Instruction has less rote learning and more higher-order cognitive learning than most other curricula. For example, in Direct Instruction math, students do not learn "Two plus two equals four" (rote). Instead, they learn a cognitive strategy

 

for solving equations that have 2's and 4's in them.

 

 

2 + __ = 4 and 4 - __ = 2.

 

 

When students learn how to solve these problems, they automatically know that 2 + 2 = 4.

 

 

8. Direct Instruction Is Not Basic Skills Only. In fact, DI focuses much more on higher-order cognitive learning. Half of the Corrective Reading curriculum is on complex forms of comprehension. And in Reading Mastery, students learn to write and analyze stories as soon as they can read.

 

 

9. Direct Instruction Is Not Boring and Alienating. In fact, students love it because there is so much individual attention (small groups); it moves quickly (which is great for students with attention problems); they are challenged continually; they are virtually always successful; and each child's success contributes to the group.

 

 

10. Direct Instruction is Not All Teacher Directed. There is much teacher direction in early lessons, especially the first part of lessons--when students are learning new material. But after 20 or so minutes, students work independently (e.g., reading and writing stories). Then they may return to the group to read and discuss each other's stories.

 

 

What's Direct About Direct Instruction?

 

 

1. The teacher knows exactly what she wants students to learn (be able to do) after each task (2-3 minutes) in lessons (15-30 minutes).

 

 

2. The teacher tells students what they will be learning before each task. This gives students a sense of

 

predictability and control. They are joined with the teacher. The teacher also tells students what they have learned after they have learned it. This helps students to focus on their own actions so that they can learn to direct themselves.

 

 

3. The teacher focuses her attention and students' attention on the task at hand.

 

 

4. The teacher tells, demonstrates, re-states, and helps students to state and re-state rules and cognitive strategies. For example, "You calculate what you will owe by adding the dollar amounts that are close to the values on the price tags. If the price says, $4.10, you add $4.00. If the price says

 

$6.95, you add $7.00."

 

 

In other words, knowledge is made explicit and overt; and students are taught to use this knowledge (how to figure a total cost) in their activities. With practice, this knowledgebecomes covert (internalized). It now belongs to the students. This is important for students' cognitive development.

 

 

5. The curriculum is arranged so that students are taught ahead of time what they need to know in order to understand what the teacher is talking about or demonstrating, and so they can figure out how to do the next task or solve the next problem.

 

 

6. Nothing is inert. Students are not taught useless facts and concepts. Whatever they are taught now, they use now and later.

 

 

7. Instructional interaction is formatted. The general format is as follows.

 

 

a. Statement of objective, expectation, or task at hand. "You know the sounds for these letters. But these letters have names. I'll tell you the names of these letters. Listen."

 

 

b. Model. Teacher touches each letter in her presentation book (a, e, i, o, u) and says the name. The teacher models a few times if students seem to need it. "Listen again."

 

 

c. Lead. The teacher does the task with the students. "Say the names with me. Remember the names are what you said when these letters had lines over them." (Note the explicit rule.) Teacher touches each letter and says the names with the students.

 

 

 

 

d. Test. Students now do the task without help. This is understood not as a test of the students, but rather as information on the teacher's effectiveness and an opportunity for the children to "show off" what they've learned. "All by yourselves. Say the names." Teacher points to each letter. The whole group responds until firm. Then she calls on individual students.

 

 

e. Re-test. Earlier material is reviewed later. This gives more practice and aids retention.

 

 

f. Error correction. In the stage of acquisition (when students are first learning a skill), the teacher corrects all errors. Why? Because otherwise, students with low self- esteem will have lower self-esteem; inattentive students will become more inattentive; and errors will show up as weaknesses in more complex activities (making students have an even harder time learning).

 

 

8. Much of the interaction follows a script, which teachers eventually memorize, just as actors "become"

 

Hamlet and Ophelia. Why scripted? Because no one on earth could create curricula as faultless in their logic and as comprehensive in scope as DI curricula.

 

 

After they have used their Teacher Presentation Books for a month or so, and have seen how fast their children are learning and how effectively they are teaching, most teachers realize the beautiful partnership that they have with the curriculum developers and researchers. The genius of the

 

curriculum developers helps teachers to perfect their craft. And the energy and skills of the teacher make the genius of the curriculum come alive. Each person--teacher and curriculum developer--makes the other's skill and energy work in the service of students.

 

 

Direct Instruction: A Look At Its Features and Benefits

 

 

1. Shifts emphasis from a child's problems or "deficits" to mastering tasks.

 

 

**More is learned in a given time. Progress is monitored more easily.

 

 

2. All children are given brief (but highly accurate) placement tests before

 

placed in a level and lesson of a curriculum.

 

 

**Children receive instruction precisely tailored to their current skills.

 

 

3. Children are "placed" in temporary homogeneous groups based on their current skills. Groups are cross-graded.

 

 

**This allows efficient use of teacher time.

 

 

    * Assists teacher in bringing students to mastery at each step.

 

    * Provides more flexibility for scheduling and placement.

 

    * Teacher does not have to spend more time with children who need more help than the rest.

 

    * Students can easily be moved to groups better suited to their strengths.

 

    * Cross-grade grouping (e.g., students from k-2 might be in the same reading group) means that each teacher has fewer groups to teach.

 

    * Allows teaching to the performance pace appropriate for each group.

 

    * The smaller range of differences among students means smaller differences in instructional methods.

 

    * Individualization is possible within the group of students.

 

 

4. Most teaching is done in small groups, with students easily observable by the teacher.

 

 

**Each child receives more direct interaction with the teacher. The teacher is able to determine exactly what each child is learning.

 

 

 

 

5. Every task the child is asked to perform is taught directly by the teacher.

 

 

**Learning is not left to chance, to "exposure," or the possibility that children will make (discover) the wrong generalizations (rules).

 

 

6. The teacher models by illustration--not simply by explanations that children may not understand or be able to translate into action.

 

 

**Instruction is more efficient (children learn much more in the same amount of time). It is easier for children to understand.

 

 

7. The teacher uses precisely laid out plans. These plans use similar presentation formats for student-teacher communication in similar tasks.

 

 

**All critical components are taught. Less preparation time is needed by teachers. The consistent use of instructional language and interaction sequences, or formats (my turn/your turn), makes it easier for children to follow and participate.

 

 

8. Signals are used to initiate a group response. "Get ready." "Your turn." "What word?" "Say the whole thing." "What's the rule?"

 

 

**This technique involves every child, holds the group's attention, and ensures that each child thinks for himself or herself.

 

 

9. There is frequent oral responding from the group and from individuals.

 

 

**This provides extensive practice for each child, gives the teacher immediate feedback on the effectiveness of instruction, allows children to "show off" their achievement, and fosters a tight community of learners.

 

 

10. Small learning increments are taught in a carefully controlled sequence through teacher-student interaction.

 

 

**This increases students' success and expectancy of achievement.

 

 

11. The pace of instruction is brisk.

 

 

**This holds children's attention, reduces boredom and the chances for disruptive behavior, and results in more learning in less time.

 

 

12. Teacher praises correct responses but avoids negative comments and singling out students for weak answers.

 

 

**This specific feedback reinforces success and promotes self-esteem.

 

 

13. Every lesson uses all three modes of learning: visual, oral/aural, and written.

 

 

**Children with different reasons for weak performance can be taught in the same group.

 

 

14. The teacher helps all students and/or the group immediately to correct every error. For example, "That word is 'eat' (model). Say it with me...'eat' (lead). Your turn. What word? 'eat' (test). Yes, eat. Starting over..."

 

 

**This increases students' experience of achievement, decreases the time spent on remedial teaching, increases the overall rate of learning, and ensures that students are prepared for later tasks.

 

 

15. Teachers explicitly teach the concepts, principles, rules and cognitive strategies for comprehension and problem solving. For example, "The rule I am using here is... What is the rule?"

 

 

**By being taught (rather than maybe "discovering") what they need to know, students are more successful. Students also "internalize" what they have been directly taught and use this knowledge to act more independently.

 

 

16. All curricula (down to the tiny details of teacher-student communication) are extensively field tested and revised to assure the highest quality.

 

 

**The curricula have a strong base of research support and do not risk wasting precious instructional opportunities because of built in flaws in logic.

 

 

Source:

 

Martin A. Kozloff, Watson Distinguished Professor of Education, The University of North Carolina at Wilmington.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Writing Learning Objectives for Unit and Lesson Plans

 

 

 

Purposes of Objectives:

 

(1)        They provide the teacher with the goal of the teaching-learning process. In other            words, you know your destination when you begin instruction. They answer the             questions, “What are the students supposed to know or be able to do once the unit             or lesson is completed?”

 

(2)        They provide a clear framework for assessment. Assessment is, after all, an effort          to determine to what extent students have reached or achieved the objectives.

 

(3)        They provide the students direction and a goal for learning. Students have a better          opportunity to stay the course when they know the goal of the learning.

 

What Objectives Are NOT Designed To Do:

 

Objectives should not describe what the teacher does during the lesson (i.e., instructional strategies or methods).  They may or may not overlap with the students’ activities, but they ultimately should describe what the student is able to do after the learning.

 

Examples of Objectives:

 

n      The learner will list three characteristics of invertebrates.

n      The learner will design a healthy diet.

n      The learner will justify the actions of the main character of the play.

n      The learner will explain three causes of the Civil War.

n      The learner will solve fifteen division problems (with single digit divisors).

n      The learner will distinguish between faith and obedience in the life of a Christian.

n      The learner will compare the populations of any three states in the U.S.

n      The learner will label the parts of a cell.

n      The learner will spell 80% of the words on the spelling list correctly.

n      The learner will list at least five reasons that water is a necessary resource.

 

Non-Examples of Objectives:

 

n      The learner will cut out patterns to color later in class. [This is an activity.]

n      The learner will work in groups to discover cause and effect for electromagnetic forces. [This is an activity.]

n      The teacher will provide work sheets for students to complete their math problems. [This is an instructional strategy or method that the teacher will do.]

 

 

 

Using Bloom’s Taxonomy in the Construction of Learning Objectives

 

Bloom’s Taxonomy, now over fifty years old, provides an excellent framework of levels of thinking that inform the writing of objectives, questions, and assessments.  For the most part, instruction occurs at the knowledge level, the lowest level of cognitive functioning on Bloom’s Taxonomy.  While this level is certainly essential to learning (without facts and recall, higher learning levels will be virtually impossible), learning should not totally reside at this level.  In a complex world that demands complex decisions and thinking, it is important that we challenge our students with higher-level learning objectives, questions, and assessment.  Another important consideration is that many criterion-referenced tests now include a preponderant amount of higher-level questions and problems for students. 

 

                                                              Synthesis

 

                                                            Evaluation

 

                                                         Analysis

 

                                                       Application

 

                                                  Comprehension

                                         

                                                 Knowledge

 

 

 

 

Many educators now place synthesis at the top of the ladder, displacing evaluation to the position directly below it. 

 

Constructing Behavioral Learning Objectives for Lessons

 

It is important that objectives always tie together the unit’s essential questions or general area of learning and a specific learning for the lesson.   The string that ties them together is the specific behavior that the student will exhibit when accomplishing the objective.

 

 

            UNIT’S                                                           LESSON’S

            GENERAL                                                      SPECIFIC

            LEARNING                                                    LEARNING

            (Essential

            Questions)                                                                                                                   

                                   

Avoid the following when writing behavioral objectives:

 

appreciate                                enjoy

like                                           love

celebrate                                  understand

Your objectives should be clear and understandable.

 

To write an objective,

 

(1)     Keep in mind the essential questions or learning from the unit (you might even        write it down)

 

(2)     Select the level of Bloom’s Taxonomy that you want to target for the objective.

 

(3)     Select the specific learning you want to student to achieve.

 

(4)     Select a concrete action verb from among those listed in the Bloom’s table. This   verb must describe an observable behavior. How else will you know if it’s been    achieved?        

 

 

         Essential Question or Learning: ____________________________________

 

         Bloom’s Level of Learning:___________________________________

 

         Specific Learning:___________________________________________

 

         Concrete Action Verb:________________________________________

 

Example:

 

         Essential Question or Learning:  Why did the Civil War occur?

 

         Bloom’s Level of Learning: Analysis

 

         Specific Learning: Characteristics of the Northern and Southern states

 

         Concrete Action Verb: Compare and contrast

 

         Objective:  The learner will compare and contrast the characteristics of the northern                                   and southern states right before the Civil War.

 

 

 

 

Writing Unit Objectives versus Lesson Objectives

 

When writing unit objectives, you may write more general objectives and even use words like “appreciate” or “understand”, but you must provide indicators (behavioral) which will indicate how a teacher will know these have been reached or achieved.

 

For example:

 

The student understands and appreciates the diversity of the people who make up American society. [Indicators below tell a teacher how he or she can know that the student in fact has reached this objective.]

 

nCan define diversity in the words of others or in his or her own words.

nCan give instances of how diverse persons or groups have enriched the cultural life of Americans.

nCan explore in writing how maintaining appreciation for diversity is a fragile and difficult goal to achieve.

 

                                                            (from Norman Gronlund, 1978, 1982).

 

Of course, the individual lessons within this unit would lead to the behaviors in the indicators under the general objective.

 

Practice

 

The essential question in a unit on The American Frontier might be

 

         “What forces prompted the western movement in American history?”

         “Why did families sacrifice sometimes even their lives to move west?”

         “How did the western migration change the face of the West?”