“ Behavior is what
people do and say.”
Example: If you say a person is angry you have not defined the behavior. You have labeled it
If you identify what the person says (&%$#@) or does (throws chairs, spits, etc.) you have
identified the behavior
Behaviors have dimensions that can be measured:
A.Frequency—number of times a behavior occurs
B.Duration—time from which a behavior begins until it ends
C.Intensity—physical force involved in the behavior
Frequency, Duration, and Intensity are all physical dimensions of behavior
Behaviors can be:
1.observed
2.described
3.recorded
by others or by people engaging in the behavior
Behaviors can have an impact on the physical or social environment
Behavior is lawful—its occurrence is influenced by environmental events
Behavior can be overt (observable) or covert (private events eg. Thinking)
Field of Psychology is concerned with 1) analysis and 2) modification of human behavior
Analysis: identifies a functional relationship between environment and a particular behavior in order
to understand the reasons for the behavior eg. Why does a person behave as they do??
Modification: developing/implementing procedures to help people change their behavior. Involves
altering environmental events to influence behavior
1.Focus is on the behavior. It is designed to change the behavior, not a characteristic or trait of
the individual. Therefore, it de-emphasizes labeling
The behavior to be changed is called the Target Behavior
Behavioral excess is an undesirable target behavior that needs to be decreased in
frequency, duration, and intensity (smoking)
Behavioral deficit is a desirable target behavior that is seeking to be increased in
frequency, duration, and intensity (exercise)
2.Emphasis is on current environmental events. Involves assessment and modification of the
current environment that is functionally related to the behavior
Once these controlling variables are identified they are altered to modify the behavior
3.The better the procedure for change is described, the more likely the procedures will be used
correctly each time (consistency issues)
4.Procedures are implemented by persons in "everyday life" eg. Teachers/aides
5.Measurement of change is a hallmark of Behavior Modification. It’s emphasis is on
measurement of the behavior before (baseline) and after intervention
6.De-emphasis on past causes of behavior. BM emphasis is on current environmental events
7.Rejects hypothetical underlying causes of behavior. Basically, because underlying causes are
nothing more than speculation and can’t be observed
Reinforcement
Basic behavioral
Principle
Definition: Reinforcement is a process in which a behavior is strengthened by the immediate
consequence that reliably (consistently) follows it occurrence
In other words……When a behavior is strengthened it is more likely to occur in the future
A behavior that is strengthened through the process of reinforcement is called an operant behavior
Definition:
1.The occurrence of a behavior*
2.Is followed by the addition of a stimulus** or increase in the intensity of a stimulus
3.Which strengthens the behavior
Definition:
1.The occurrence of a behavior
2.Is followed by the removal of a stimulus or decrease in the intensity of a stimulus
3.Which strengthens the behavior
*Behavior—any observable and measurable act of an individual
**Stimulus—an object/event that can be
detected by one of the senses and has the potential to
influence the person
Examples of Positive Reinforcement (R+)
1.A child cries at night (occurrence of a behavior)
2.Parent comes into the room to comfort child (addition of a stimulus)
3.Child cries more at bedtime (strengthens the behavior—crying)
1.Johnnie stays in seat and pays attention (occurrence of a behavior)
2.Teacher praises and smiles at Johnnie (addition of a stimulus)
3.Johnnie stays in seat and pays more attention (strengthens the behavior—staying in seat and
paying attention)
Examples of
Negative Reinforcement (R-)
1.A person is waiting in the rain for the bus and opens umbrella (occurrence of a behavior)
2.The umbrella keeps the rain off (removal of a stimulus—rain)
3.The person opens the umbrella when it rains (strengthens behavior—umbrella opening)
1.A chef cooks well-done steaks and creates smoke in kitchen (occurrence of a behavior)
2.Chef turns on exhaust fan to get rid of smoke (removal of a stimulus—smoke)
3.Chef turns on exhaust fan when cooking well-done steaks (strengthens behavior—turning on
exhaust fan)
In R+ the stimulus that is presented or appears following a behavior is called a positive
reinforcer eg. Parent comforting child, Teacher praising student
In R- the stimulus that is removed or avoided following a behavior is called an aversive stimulus
eg. Removing rain/smoke
Difference between R+ and R- is that in R+ a response produces a stimulus (positive reinforcer)
Whereas, in R- a response removes or prevents the occurrence of a stimulus (aversive stimulus)
In both cases, the behavior is likely to occur again in the future.
Some confuse Negative Reinforcement with Punishment. They are not the
same!!!
Negative Reinforcement, like Positive Reinforcement increases or
strengthens the behavior
Punishment, in contrast and by definition, decreases or weakens a
behavior
The confusion comes in using the word "negative". In this context "negative" does not mean "bad",
but refers to the removal of a stimulus following the behavior.
Q: How do we know if we are reinforcing a behavior
A: We may not know
Example:
A student completes an academic task, takes his paper to the teacher, the teacher smiles, pats him
on the back, and says "good job". It is hard to know if this is reinforcing since we don’t have
enough information.
This would be an example of positive reinforcement only if because of the praise and pat on the
back the child was more likely to complete assignments in the future. We may assume for most
children this would be reinforcing, however, it may not be for some.
For some children diagnosed with Autism that are hypersensitive to tactile behavior or totally lack
social or emotional reciprocity, teacher attention may not be reinforcing and a pat on the back may
not strengthen a behavior
In order to determine if a consequence will be a reinforcer, it needs to be tried and measured to
determine its effect on the behavior.
Ask 3 questions when analyzing a situation to decide if it is a reinforcer or not
1.What is the behavior?
2.What happened right after the behavior (was a stimulus added or removed)?
3.What happened to the behavior in the future (was the behavior strengthened or more likely to
occur)?
If you can answer each of these questions you will be able to identify examples of reinforcers (either
positive or negative)
Premack Principle (Grandma’s Rule)
A type of Positive Reinforcement that involves the opportunity to engage in high-probability behavior
(something preferred) as a consequence of low-probability behavior (less preferred) in order to
increase the low-probability behavior.
Example:
Parents require their child to do homework (low-probability behavior) before he can play with
friends (high-probability behavior)
The opportunity to play following the completion of homework reinforces the behavior of doing the
homework
Unconditioned Reinforcers sometimes called primary reinforcers . They have biological
importance and survival value.
Food and water are examples of natural positive reinforcers. They are unconditioned because no
training or conditioning is needed for them to develop as a reinforcer.
Conditioned Reinforcers sometimes called secondary reinforcers. It is a stimulus that was once
neutral, but became established as a reinforcer by being paired with an unconditioned reinforcer.
Example:
A parent’s attention is a conditioned reinforcer for most children because attention is paired with the
delivery of food, water, etc. many times in the child’s early life.
1.Immediacy: For a consequence (event occurring right after a behavior) to be most effective
as a reinforcer, it should occur immediately after the behavior. The longer the delay, the less
effective the consequence will be
2.Contingency: When a response produces the consequence and consequence doesn’t occur
unless the response occurs first. Example: Starting your car with a key is an example. Every
time you turn the key your car starts. The behavior of turning the key is reinforced by the car
starting.
3.Deprivation: Example—Food will be more reinforcing for a person who hasn’t eaten
recently than for a person who just finished a large meal. Likewise, attention may be more
powerful for a child who has gone without it for an extended period of time.
4.Satiation: This can make a stimulus less reinforcing. For example, if you have listened to
your favorite music for the last 5 hours it may not be as reinforcing as it would be if you
hadn’t heard it for a long period of time